Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology Acids, Bases & Chemicals Pima Medical Institute organic Substances Introduction to Human Anatomy & Physiology Acids, Bases & Chemicals Organic Substances Pima Medical Institute Online Education David Shier, Jackie Butler, Ricki Lewis, Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th Ed. CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Created by Dr. Melissa Eisenhauer, Trevecca Nazarene University

Organic Substances Carbohydrates C C C O2 C H H H H O O Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates Supply building materials for cell structures Stored as reserve energy Contain atoms of C, H, and O Have twice as many H atoms as O atoms Carbon atoms are joined in chains Important groups of organic chemicals in cells include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates supply much of the energy for the cells. They supply building materials for certain cell structures and are often stored as reserve energy. These molecules contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates usually have twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms. The carbon atoms are joined in chains that vary in length with the kind of carbohydrate. C C C O2 C H H H H O O

Complex Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Simple Carbohydrates (simple sugars) Complex Carbohydrates Are 6-carbon sugars that include: Are a number of simple sugar molecules that include: Monosaccharides Glucose Fructose Galactose Ribose Deoxyribose Disaccharides Sucrose Lactose Polysaccharides Plant starch Glycogen Simple carbohydrates are six-carbon sugars known as simple sugars (monosaccharides). The simple sugars include glucose, fructose, and galactose, as well as the 5—carbon sugar ribose and deoxyribose. In complex carbohydrates, a number of simple sugar molecules link to form molecules of varying sizes. Disaccharides are double sugars such as sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar). Other complex carbohydrates are made up of many simple sugar units joined to form polysaccharides, such as plant starch. Animals, including humans, synthesize a polysaccharide similar to starch called glycogen. C C C O2 C C C

Lipids Fats Phospholipids Steroids C O H O2 H C Lipids Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids Most common type Lipids Carbohydrates WATER ORGANIC SOLVENTS Fats Phospholipids Steroids C O H O2 H C Lipids Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in certain organic solvents. They supply more energy, gram for gram, than carbohydrates. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids contain a much smaller proportion of oxygen than carbohydrates. Lipids also include a variety of compounds—fats, phospholipids, and steroids—that have vital functions. The most common lipids are fats. Insoluble in water but soluble in certain organic solvents Supply more energy than carbohydrates Contain atoms of C, H, and O Have a smaller proportion of O than carbohydrates Include a variety of compounds that have vital functions Most common lipids are fats

Fats are used to store energy for cellular activities Lipids Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids Fats are used to store energy for cellular activities TRIGLYCERIDE (fat molecule) UNSATURATED FAT C SATURATED FAT C Fatty acid Fatty acid Fatty acid Fats are used primarily to store energy for cellular activities. The building blocks of fat molecules are fatty acids and glycerol. Each glycerol molecule bonds with three fatty acid molecules to produce a single fat or triglyceride, molecule. An unsaturated fat contains one or more double bonds between its carbon atoms. A saturated fat contains no double bonds between its carbon atoms. Glycerol

Lipids Phospholipids Steroids Fatty acid Glycerol Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids Phospholipids Fatty acid Glycerol Used as structural components in cell membranes Abundant in liver and parts of the nervous system www.reactivereports.com Carbon ring Phospholipids are used as structural components in cell membranes and are abundant in liver and parts of the nervous system. A phospholipid molecule is similar to a fat molecule in that it consists of a glycerol portion and fatty acid chains. Steroid molecules are complex structures that include four connected rings of carbon atoms. Among the more important steroids are cholesterol, which is in all body cells and is used to synthesize other steroids such sex hormones and several hormones from the adrenal glands. Steroids Cholesterol is used to synthesize other steroids Sex hormones (estrogen, testosterone) Adrenal gland hormones

Proteins Proteins N S C O H Proteins Hormones Structural Materials Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids www.genome.gov Hormones Enzymes Ion Channels Carrier Proteins Receptors N always S sometimes C O H Structural Materials Energy Sources Proteins Proteins can be used as structural materials, energy sources, and hormones. Many proteins are globular and function as enzymes, ion channels, carrier proteins, or receptors. Proteins contain atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In addition, they always contain nitrogen atoms, and sometimes contain sulfur atoms as well. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Can be used as structural materials, energy sources, and hormones Are globular and function as enzymes, ion channels, carrier proteins, or receptors Contain atoms of C, H, and O Always contain N atoms and sometimes contain S Building blocks are amino acids

Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids 20 different amino acids make up the proteins of most living organisms A protein molecule consists of one or more polypeptide chains www.genome.gov Amino Acid Peptide Chain Protein Twenty different amino acids make up the proteins of most living organisms. The amino acids join in polypeptide chains that vary in length from less than 100 to more than 5000 amino acids. A protein molecule consists of one or more polypeptide chains.

Conformation Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids Hydrogen and covalent bonding gives the final protein a distinctive 3-D shape (conformation) Determines its function Keratin Fibrin Hydrogen bonding and even covalent bonding between atoms in different parts of the polypeptide give the final protein a distinctive three-dimensional shape, or conformation. The conformation of a protein determines its function. Some proteins are long and fibrous, such as the keratin proteins that form hair, or fibrin, the protein whose threads form a blood clot.

Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids A protein’s unique shape may be denatured when hydrogen bonds break Heat denatures the protein in egg white (albumin) This is an irreversible change Loses its properties timeinkitchen.com Super-happy-day.blogspot.com Excessive heat Radiation pH changes 7.0 A protein’s unique shape may be changed dramatically (or denatured) when hydrogen bonds in a protein can break. This can happen as a result of exposure to: Excessive heat Radiation Electricity pH changes various chemicals. Proteins then lose their special properties. For example, heat denatures the protein in egg white (albumin), changing it from a liquid to a solid. This is an irreversible change—a hard-boiled egg cannot return to its uncooked, runny state. Similarly, cellular proteins that are denatured may be permanently altered and lose their functions. Electricity Chemicals Cellular proteins that are denatured may be permanently altered and lose their functions

Primary Secondary Tertiary Proteins have several levels of structure: Primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.

Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins www.ucl.ac.uk www.howstuffworks.com Nucleic Acids The molecules of nucleic acids are generally very large and complex. They include atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which form building blocks call nucleotides. Each nucleotide consist of a 5-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of several nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) bases. Are very large and complex Include atoms of C, H, O, N, and Ph which form nucleotides Each nucleotide consists of: 5-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) Phosphate group One of several nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) bases

Deoxyribonucleic Acid RNA vs. DNA Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Certain nucleotides have another role in providing energy to certain chemical reactions Nucleic acids are of two types: One type—RNA (ribonucleic acid)—is composed of molecules whose nucleotides have ribose. RNA usually is a single polynucleotide chain, but it can fold into various shapes that enable it to control when certain genes are accessed. RNA molecules carry out protein synthesis. The second type—DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—has deoxyribose and forms a double polynucleotide chain. The two chains are held together by hydrogen bonds. DNA molecules store information in a type of molecular code created by the sequences of the four types of nitrogenous bases. Cells use this information to synthesize protein molecules. Certain nucleotides, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), have another role providing energy to certain chemical reactions. Composed of ribose molecules Usually a single polynucleotide chain Controls access to genes Carry out protein synthesis Composed of deoxyribose molecules Forms a double polynucleotide chain; held together by H bonds Store information in a code Synthesize protein molecules

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