Amateur Extra License Class Chapter 5 Components and Building Blocks

Semiconductor Devices Materials Atomic Structure. Nucleus (Protons & Neutrons). Electrons. Orbits (Shells). Valence electrons. 8 Valence electrons completes a shell. Atomic number. Number of protons in nucleus. Number of electrons (non-ionized).

Semiconductor Devices Materials Electrons in outer shell are called valence electrons. Valence electrons interact with other atoms to form compounds. Atoms want to have their outer shell of electrons filled. Full shell = 8 electrons. Atoms can share valence electrons with other atoms to fill their outer shell forming a compound.

Semiconductor Devices Materials Atoms with fewer than 4 valence electrons are normally conductors (metals). Atoms with more than 4 valence electrons are normally non-conductors. Atoms with 4 valence electrons are normally semi-conductors. Silicon Germanium

Semiconductor Devices Materials Atoms can arrange themselves into a regular pattern by sharing valence electrons to form a crystal. Crystals of pure silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) are not normally good conductors.

Semiconductor Devices Materials Crystals of pure semi-conductor atoms, such as silicon (Si), can have a precisely controlled number of other atoms inserted into the crystal structure. This process is called “doping”. Doping with atoms with 3 or 5 valence electrons causes the crystal to become more conductive.

Semiconductor Devices Materials Adding an element with 5 valence electrons (donor impurity) creates N-type material. Excess free electrons. Typical donor impurities: Arsenic Antimony Phosphorus

Semiconductor Devices Materials Adding an element with 3 valence electrons (acceptor impurity) creates P-type material. Shortage of free electrons (holes). Typical acceptor impurities: Aluminum Gallium Indium

Semiconductor Devices Materials Majority Charge Carriers. N-Type Material = Electron P-Type Material = Hole Other semiconductor materials. Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs). LED’s Microwave frequencies. Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphide (GaAsP).

E6A01 -- In what application is gallium arsenide used as a semiconductor material in preference to germanium or silicon? In high-current rectifier circuits In high-power audio circuits At microwave frequencies At very low frequency RF circuits

E6A02 -- Which of the following semiconductor materials contains excess free electrons? N-type P-type Bipolar Insulated gate

E6A03 -- What are the majority charge carriers in P-type semiconductor material? Free neutrons Free protons Holes Free electrons

E6A04 -- What is the name given to an impurity atom that adds holes to a semiconductor crystal structure? Insulator impurity N-type impurity Acceptor impurity Donor impurity

E6A15 -- Which of the following semiconductor materials contains an excess of holes in the outer shell of electrons? N-type P-type Superconductor-type Bipolar-type

E6A16 -- What are the majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductor material? Holes Free electrons Free protons Free neutrons

Semiconductor Devices Diodes A diode allows current flow in one direction and resists current flow in the other direction. Two terminals: Anode Cathode. Electrons flow from cathode to anode. Holes flow from anode to cathode.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Junction diodes. With no voltage applied, electrons & holes combine at the junction forming a depletion region.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Diode Ratings. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV). Avalanche voltage. Maximum Average Forward Current. Maximum Allowable Junction Temperature. Forward Voltage Drop. Silicon = 0.7 Volts (approx.) Germanium = 0.3 Volts (approx.) GaAs & GaAsP = 1.2 Volts to 1.5 Volts (approx.)

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Schottky Barrier Diodes. P-type material replaced with a layer of metal. Point-Contact Diodes. Hot-Carrier Diodes. Lower forward voltage drop. Less power dissipation. Power supplies.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Point-Contact Diodes. Very low junction capacitance. Very low current. Better for VHF & UHF detectors than normal junction diode.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Hot-Carrier Diodes. Similar to point-contact diode. More stable mechanically. Lower contact resistance  Higher current capability.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Zener Diodes. Operates with reverse bias. Operates at avalanche voltage. Large change in avalanche current results in small change in voltage. Designed to withstand avalanche current with proper heat sink.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Tunnel Diodes. Special type of diode that does not rectify. When properly biased, exhibits negative resistance. Once used for oscillators & amplifiers at microwave frequencies.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes Varactor Diodes (VariCap). Operates with reverse bias. Varying voltage varies junction capacitance. A few picofarads to >100 pF. Used for variable-frequency oscillators & for FM modulators.

Semiconductor Devices Diodes PIN Diodes. 3rd layer of undoped (intrinsic) material. Forward resistance varies with forward bias voltage. More voltage  lower resistance. Used for RF attenuation & switching.

E6B01 -- What is the most useful characteristic of a Zener diode? A constant current drop under conditions of varying voltage A constant voltage drop under conditions of varying current A negative resistance region An internal capacitance that varies with the applied voltage

E6B02 -- What is an important characteristic of a Schottky diode as compared to an ordinary silicon diode when used as a power supply rectifier? Much higher reverse voltage breakdown Controlled reverse avalanche voltage Enhanced carrier retention time Less forward voltage drop

E6B03 -- What special type of diode is capable of both amplification and oscillation? Point contact Zener Tunnel Junction

E6B04 -- What type of semiconductor device is designed for use as a voltage-controlled capacitor? Varactor diode Tunnel diode Silicon-controlled rectifier Zener diode

E6B05 -- What characteristic of a PIN diode makes it useful as an RF switch or attenuator? Extremely high reverse breakdown voltage Ability to dissipate large amounts of power Reverse bias controls its forward voltage drop A large region of intrinsic material

E6B06 -- Which of the following is a common use of a hot-carrier diode? As balanced mixers in FM generation As a variable capacitance in an automatic frequency control circuit As a constant voltage reference in a power supply As a VHF / UHF mixer or detector

E6B07 -- What is the failure mechanism when a junction diode fails due to excessive current? Excessive inverse voltage Excessive junction temperature Insufficient forward voltage Charge carrier depletion

E6B08 -- Which of the following describes a type of semiconductor diode? Metal-semiconductor junction Electrolytic rectifier CMOS-field effect Thermionic emission diode

E6B09 -- What is a common use for point contact diodes? As a constant current source As a constant voltage source As an RF detector As a high voltage rectifier

E6B11 -- What is used to control the attenuation of RF signals by a PIN diode? Forward DC bias current A sub-harmonic pump signal Reverse voltage larger than the RF signal Capacitance of an RF coupling capacitor

E6B12 -- What is one common use for PIN diodes? As a constant current source As a constant voltage source As an RF switch As a high voltage rectifier

Semiconductor Devices Bipolar Junction Transistors 3 doped layers. N-P-N. P-N-P. 3 terminals. Collector. Base. Emitter.

Semiconductor Devices Bipolar Transistors Base region very thin. Base-emitter junction is forward biased. Collector-base junction is reverse biased. A small current flowing through base-emitter junction causes a large current to flow through the collector-base junction. Low input impedance. Low output impedance.

Semiconductor Devices Bipolar Transistors Transistor characteristics. Current gain (β). β = IC/IB Alpha (α). α = IB/IE

Semiconductor Devices Bipolar Transistors Transistor characteristics. Alpha Cut-off Frequency. Frequency at which current gain drops to 0.707 times the value at 1 kHz. Practical upper frequency limit for common-base amplifier. Beta Cut-off Frequency. Practical upper frequency limit for common-emitter amplifier.

E6A05 -- What is the alpha of a bipolar junction transistor? The change of collector current with respect to base current The change of base current with respect to collector current The change of collector current with respect to emitter current The change of collector current with respect to gate current

 E6A06 -- What is the beta of a bipolar junction transistor? The frequency at which the current gain is reduced to 1 The change in collector current with respect to base current The breakdown voltage of the base to collector junction The switching speed of the transistor

E6A07 -- In Figure E6-1, what is the schematic symbol for a PNP transistor? 2 4 5

E6A08 -- What term indicates the frequency at which the grounded-base current gain of a transistor has decreased to 0.7 of the gain obtainable at 1 kHz? Corner frequency Alpha rejection frequency Beta cutoff frequency Alpha cutoff frequency

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors (FET) Gate voltage controls channel current. Gain measured in transconductance. G = ID / VG Siemens High input impedance. 2 Modes Enhancement Mode Depletion Mode

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET).

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET). A reverse-biased voltage between the gate & source controls the source-drain current. Gate terminal is always reverse-biased. Very little gate current flow. High input impedance. Low output impedance.

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET).

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET). Gate is insulated from the source-drain channel. No gate current flow. Very high input impedance. ≥10 megohms. Low output impedance. Susceptible to damage from static discharge. Often have internal zener diodes to protect gate.

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) Depletion Mode Enhancement Mode Dual-Gate

Semiconductor Devices Field-Effect Transistors Enhancement and depletion mode FET’s. Enhancement mode. VG = 0 VDC  No source-drain current flow. Increasing gate voltage  larger source-drain current. Depletion mode. VG = 0 VDC  Non-zero source-drain current flow. Increasing gate voltage  smaller source-drain current.

E6A09 -- What is a depletion-mode FET? An FET that exhibits a current flow between source and drain when no gate voltage is applied An FET that has no current flow between source and drain when no gate voltage is applied Any FET without a channel Any FET for which holes are the majority carriers

E6A10 -- In Figure E6-2, what is the schematic symbol for an N-channel dual-gate MOSFET? 4 5 6

E6A11 -- In Figure E6-2, what is the schematic symbol for a P-channel junction FET? 3 6

E6A12 -- Why do many MOSFET devices have internally connected Zener diodes on the gates? To provide a voltage reference for the correct amount of reverse-bias gate voltage To protect the substrate from excessive voltages To keep the gate voltage within specifications and prevent the device from overheating To reduce the chance of the gate insulation being punctured by static discharges or excessive voltages

E6A14 -- How does DC input impedance at the gate of a field-effect transistor compare with the DC input impedance of a bipolar transistor? They are both low impedance An FET has low input impedance; a bipolar transistor has high input impedance An FET has high input impedance; a bipolar transistor has low input impedance They are both high impedance

E6A17 -- What are the names of the three terminals of a field-effect transistor? Gate 1, gate 2, drain Emitter, base, collector Emitter, base 1, base 2 Gate, drain, source

Semiconductor Devices RF Integrated Devices Monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC). VHF, UHF, microwaves. Typically 50Ω Low Noise Figure Typically 2.0 dB Microstrip Construction Gallium nitride Highest frequency

E6E04 -- What is the most common input and output impedance of circuits that use MMICs? 50 ohms 300 ohms 450 ohms 10 ohms

E6E05 -- Which of the following noise figure values is typical of a low-noise UHF preamplifier? 2 dB -10 dB 44 dBm -20 dBm

E6E06 -- What characteristics of the MMIC make it a popular choice for VHF through microwave circuits? The ability to retrieve information from a single signal even in the presence of other strong signals. Plate current that is controlled by a control grid Nearly infinite gain, very high input impedance, and very low output impedance Controlled gain, low noise figure, and constant input and output impedance over the specified frequency range

E6E07 -- Which of the following is typically used to construct a MMIC-based microwave amplifier? Ground-plane construction Microstrip construction Point-to-point construction Wave-soldering construction

E6E08 -- How is power-supply voltage normally furnished to the most common type of monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC)? Through a resistor and/or RF choke connected to the amplifier output lead MMICs require no operating bias Through a capacitor and RF choke connected to the amplifier input lead Directly to the bias-voltage (VCC IN) lead

E6E11 -- Which of the following materials is likely to provide the highest frequency of operation when used in MMICs? Silicon Silicon nitride Silicon dioxide Gallium nitride

Display Devices Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)

Display Devices Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) Emit light when forward-biased. Forward voltage drop varies with color. Red – 1.6 Volts Yellow – 2 Volts Green – 4 Volts Typically 10 mA to 20 mA for full brightness.

Display Devices Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) Red, green, & yellow. Gallium-Arsenide, Gallium-Phosphide, or a combination. Blue. Silicon-Carbide or Zinc-Selenide White. Actually blue LED’s with yellow phosphor coating on lens.

E6B10 -- In Figure E6-3, what is the schematic symbol for a light-emitting diode? 5 6 7

E6B13 -- What type of bias is required for an LED to emit light? Reverse bias Forward bias Zero bias Inductive bias

Display Devices Liquid-Crystal Displays Rotates polarization of light passing through it. Applying voltage across crystal changes polarization.

Display Devices Liquid-Crystal Displays Advantages Disadvantages Very low power required. Low operating voltage. Thin. Disadvantages Low temperatures affect speed of polarization shift. May be damaged by high temperatures. May be difficult to read in bright light or at an angle.

E6D05 -- What is a liquid-crystal display (LCD)? A modern replacement for a quartz crystal oscillator which displays its fundamental frequency A display using a crystalline liquid which, in conjunction with polarizing filters, becomes opaque when voltage is applied A frequency-determining unit for a transmitter or receiver A display that uses a glowing liquid to remain brightly lit in dim light

E6D15 -- What is the principle advantage of liquid-crystal display (LCD) devices over other types of display devices? They consume less power They can display changes instantly They are visible in all light conditions They can be easily interchanged with other display devices

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes Vacuum tube display. TV’s. Computer monitors. Oscilloscopes. Radar displays.

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes An electron bean is accelerated by a high voltage & strikes a glass surface coated with a phosphorescent material. Phosphorescent coating glows when struck by electrons. More electrons  brighter glow. Persistence is length of time glow continues after electrons no longer strike the coating. Electron beam is deflected from side-to-side & top-to-bottom to paint desired image.

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes Electromagnetic deflection. Computer monitors. Televisions.

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes Electrostatic deflection. More precise deflection of electron beam. Better for high-frequency displays. Oscilloscopes. Test equipment.

Display Devices Cathode-Ray Tubes Increasing anode voltage increases speed of electrons. Higher speed  increased brightness. Higher speed  decreased image size. Excessive speed can generate x-rays.

E6D01 -- What is cathode ray tube (CRT) persistence? The time it takes for an image to appear after the electron beam is turned on The relative brightness of the display under varying conditions of ambient light The ability of the display to remain in focus under varying conditions The length of time the image remains on the screen after the beam is turned off

E6D02 -- Exceeding what design rating can cause a cathode ray tube (CRT) to generate X-rays? The heater voltage The anode voltage The operating temperature The operating frequency

E6D13 -- What type of CRT deflection is better when high-frequency waveforms are to be displayed on the screen? Electromagnetic Tubular Radar Electrostatic

Display Devices Charge-Coupled Devices Combines digital & analog signal processing. Array of capacitors with MOSFET switches on input & output. Basis of nearly all modern cameras, both still & video.

Display Devices Charge-Coupled Devices Series of “buckets” containing an analog voltage. Analog values transferred from “bucket” to “bucket” when a clock pulse is received. Can NOT be used as an analog-to-digital converter.

E6D03 -- Which of the following is true of a charge-coupled device (CCD)? Its phase shift changes rapidly with frequency It is a CMOS analog-to-digital converter It samples an analog signal and passes it in stages from the input to the output It is used in a battery charger circuit

E6D04 -- What function does a charge-coupled device (CCD) serve in a modern video camera? It stores photogenerated charges as signals corresponding to pixels It generates the horizontal pulses needed for electron beam scanning It focuses the light used to produce a pattern of electrical charges corresponding to the image It combines audio and video information to produce a composite RF signal

E6D14 -- Which is NOT true of a charge-coupled device (CCD)? It uses a combination of analog and digital circuitry It can be used to make an audio delay line It is commonly used as an analog-to-digital converter It samples and stores analog signals

Break

Digital Logic Logic Basics Combinational logic. Boolean Algebra. Output state determined by combination of input states. Boolean Algebra. Variables have only 2 values. 0 or 1. False or True. Off or On. Truth table.

Digital Logic Logic Basics One-input elements. Non-inverting buffer. Inverting buffer or “Not” gate. A B 1 A B 1

Digital Logic Logic Basics AND gate. Output true only if ALL inputs are true. A B C 1 A B C 1

Digital Logic Logic Basics OR gate. Output true if one or more of the inputs are true. A B C 1 A B C 1

Digital Logic Logic Basics Exclusive OR gate. Output true if one and only one of the inputs is true. A B C 1 A B C 1

Digital Logic Logic Basics Positive & negative logic. Positive logic. True represented by highest voltage. Negative logic. True represented by lowest voltage. Positive logic NAND functionally equivalent to negative logic NOR (same truth table).

Digital Logic Tri-State Logic Allows multiple devices to be connected in parallel on same output bus. Input Output Enable or Select

Digital Logic Logic Basics Tri-state logic. Three output states. Low (0). High (1). Off (high impedance). Allows multiple devices to be connected in parallel on same output bus. Only one device can be “on” at a time. All others MUST be in the high-impedance state.

E6C03 -- Which of the following describes tri-state logic? Logic devices with 0, 1, and high impedance output states Logic devices that utilize ternary math Low power logic devices designed to operate at 3 volts Proprietary logic devices manufactured by Tri-State Devices

E6C04 -- Which of the following is the primary advantage of tri-state logic? Low power consumption Ability to connect many device outputs to a common bus High speed operation More efficient arithmetic operations

E6C07 -- In Figure E6-5, what is the schematic symbol for an AND gate? 1 2 3 4

E6C08 -- In Figure E6-5, what is the schematic symbol for a NAND gate? 1 2 3 4

E6C09 -- In Figure E6-5, what is the schematic symbol for an OR gate? 2 3 4 6

E6C10 -- In Figure E6-5, what is the schematic symbol for a NOR gate? 2 3 4

E6C11 -- In Figure E6-5, what is the schematic symbol for the NOT operation (inverter)? 2 4 5 6

E7A07 -- What logical operation does a NAND gate perform? It produces a logic "0" at its output only when all inputs are logic "0“ It produces a logic "1" at its output only when all inputs are logic "1“ It produces a logic "0" at its output if some but not all of its inputs are logic "1“ It produces a logic "0" at its output only when all inputs are logic "1“

E7A08 -- What logical operation does an OR gate perform? It produces a logic "1" at its output if any or all inputs are logic "1“ It produces a logic "0" at its output if all inputs are logic "1“ It only produces a logic "0" at its output when all inputs are logic "1“ It produces a logic "1" at its output if all inputs are logic "0”

E7A09 -- What logical operation is performed by a two-input exclusive NOR gate? It produces a logic "0" at its output only if all inputs are logic "0“ It produces a logic "1" at its output only if all inputs are logic "1“ It produces a logic "0" at its output if any single input is a logic “1” It produces a logic "1" at its output if any single input is a logic “1”

E7A10 -- What is a truth table? A table of logic symbols that indicate the high logic states of an op-amp A diagram showing logic states when the digital device's output is true A list of inputs and corresponding outputs for a digital device A table of logic symbols that indicates the low logic states of an op-amp

E7A11 -- What is the name for logic which represents a logic "1" as a high voltage? Reverse Logic Assertive Logic Negative logic Positive Logic

E7A12 -- What is the name for logic which represents a logic "0" as a high voltage? Reverse Logic Assertive Logic Negative logic Positive Logic

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Sequential logic Current state dependent on both current inputs and previous state. Must include some form of “memory”.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Flip-flops. a.k.a -- Bi-stable multivibrator, latch. Several different types. S-R, J-K, D, T. Gated, non-gated. Clocked, non-clocked. Can be used as frequency divider.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Synchronous and asynchronous flip-flops. Synchronous flip-flops. Clock input. Changes state ONLY at time determined by clock input. Asynchronous flip-flops. No clock input. Changes state whenever any input changes state.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Dynamic versus static inputs. Dynamic inputs. a.k.a. – Edge-triggered. Flip-flop acts ONLY when clock input changes state. Positive-edge triggered. Negative-edge triggered. Static inputs. a.k.a. – Level-triggered. Flip-flop acts when any input changes state.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Set-Reset (SR) Latch Most basic latch type. S R Action No change 1 Q = 0 Q = 1 Forbidden

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Gated SR Latch Same as SR latch with enable input. E S R Action ? No change 1 Q = 0 Q = 1 Forbidden

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic J-K flip-flop Adds toggle function to SR latch. Must be clocked. Clock (>) J K Action -- No change 1 Q = 0 Q = 1 Toggle (Q = not Q)

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Frequency divider. Cascaded J-K flip-flops.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic D flip-flop Most common type. Computer RAM. Must be clocked. Clock (>) D Action -- No change 1 Q = 0 Q = 1

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic T flip-flop Toggles state with each clock pulse. D flip-flop with Q output connected to D input. Clock (>) T Action -- No change 1 Toggle (Q = not Q)

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Shift Register Cascaded D flip-flops. Converts serial data to parallel data & vice versa.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic Monostable multivibrator (One-shot) Generates one pulse with each trigger. Pulse length determined by R-C time constant. Astable multivibrator (Oscillator) Generates series of pulses. Pulse length & time between pulses determined by R-C time constants.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic 555 Timer I.C. One of the most popular IC’s ever made. 1 billion/year. Monostable or astable multivibrator.

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic 555 Monostable multivibrator T = 1.1 x R x C

Digital Logic Synchronous Logic 555 Astable multivibrator f = Ratio of R1 to R2 sets duty cycle. 1.46 C1 x (R1 + (2 x R2))

E7A01 -- Which of the following is a bistable circuit? An "AND" gate An "OR" gate A flip-flop A clock

E7A02 -- How many output level changes are obtained for every two trigger pulses applied to the input of a T flip-flop circuit? None One Two Four

E7A03 -- Which of the following can divide the frequency of a pulse train by 2? An XOR gate A flip-flop An OR gate A multiplexer

E7A04 -- How many flip-flops are required to divide a signal frequency by 4? 1 2 4 8

Monostable multivibrator J-K flip-flop T flip-flop E7A05 -- Which of the following is a circuit that continuously alternates between two states without an external clock? Monostable multivibrator J-K flip-flop T flip-flop Astable multivibrator

E7A06 -- What is a characteristic of a monostable multivibrator? It switches momentarily to the opposite binary state and then returns, after a set time, to its original state It is a clock that produces a continuous square wave oscillating between 1 and 0 It stores one bit of data in either a 0 or 1 state It maintains a constant output voltage, regardless of variations in the input voltage

E7A13 -- What is an SR or RS flip-flop? A speed-reduced logic device with high power capability A set/reset flip-flop whose output is low when R is high and S is low, high when S is high and R is low, and unchanged when both inputs are low A speed-reduced logic device with very low voltage operation capability A set/reset flip-flop that toggles whenever the T input is pulsed, unless both inputs are high

E7A14 -- What is a JK flip-flop? A flip-flop similar to an RS except that it toggles when both J and K are high A flip-flop utilizing low power, low temperature Joule-Kelvin devices A flip-flop similar to a D flip-flop except that it triggers on the negative clock edge A flip-flop originally developed in Japan and Korea which has very low power consumption

E7A15 -- What is a D flip-flop? A flip-flop whose output takes on the state of the D input when the clock signal transitions from low to high A differential class D amplifier used as a flip-flop circuit A dynamic memory storage element A flip-flop whose output is capable of both positive and negative voltage excursions

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Divide-by-N counter. A series of flip-flops connected so that one output pulse occurs after every N pulses. Each flip-flop divides by 2. Most counters provide an input to clear count. Counters can either count up or down. A decade counter divides by 10. A 4-stage counter (divide by 16) with feedback to reset after 10 input pulses.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Asynchronous (ripple) counter. Each input pulse triggers the following stage, so the count “ripples” along the chain.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Synchronous counter. Each stage in counter triggered by common clock, so each stage in counter changes state at the same time.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Frequency counters and references. A frequency counter is one of the most accurate means of determining a frequency. Counts number of pulses during a specified time interval & displays result. At VHF and higher frequencies, most counters use a “prescaler” to divide frequency by 10 or 100 before actual counting takes place.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Frequency counters and references. Frequency counter accuracy determined by a highly accurate reference oscillator called a “time base”. Temperature stable crystal oscillator. For extreme accuracy, an external reference can be used. GPS-disciplined oscillator. Rubidium reference oscillator.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Frequency counters and references. For counting low frequencies, reference oscillator & input signals are reversed. Time base oscillator is fed to input of counter. Input signal used as the time base. Measures period of signal & calculates frequency.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Marker generators. A high-stability crystal oscillator that generates a series of pulses at a known frequency. A frequency divider generates pulses at sub-multiples of reference frequency.

Digital Logic Frequency Dividers and Counters Marker generators. Selectable marker intervals. 100 kHz, 50 kHz, 25 kHz.

E7F01 -- What is the purpose of a prescaler circuit? It converts the output of a JK flip flop to that of an RS flip-flop It multiplies a higher frequency signal so a low-frequency counter can display the operating frequency It prevents oscillation in a low-frequency counter circuit It divides a higher frequency signal so a low-frequency counter can display the input frequency

E7F02 -- Which of the following would be used to reduce a signal’s frequency by a factor of ten? A preamp A prescaler A marker generator A flip-flop

E7F03 -- What is the function of a decade counter digital IC? It produces one output pulse for every ten input pulses It decodes a decimal number for display on a seven-segment LED display It produces ten output pulses for every input pulse It adds two decimal numbers together

E7F04 -- What additional circuitry must be added to a 100-kHz crystal-controlled marker generator so as to provide markers at 50 and 25 kHz? An emitter-follower Two frequency multipliers Two flip-flops A voltage divider

E7F05 -- Which of the following is a technique for providing high stability oscillators needed for microwave transmission and reception? Use a GPS signal reference Use a rubidium stabilized reference oscillator Use a temperature-controlled high Q dielectric resonator All of these choices are correct

E7F06 -- What is one purpose of a marker generator? To add audio markers to an oscilloscope To provide a frequency reference for a phase locked loop To provide a means of calibrating a receiver's frequency settings To add time signals to a transmitted signal

E7F07 -- What determines the accuracy of a frequency counter? The accuracy of the time base The speed of the logic devices used Accuracy of the AC input frequency to the power supply Proper balancing of the mixer diodes

E7F08 -- Which of the following is performed by a frequency counter? Determining the frequency deviation with an FM discriminator Mixing the incoming signal with a WWV reference Counting the number of input pulses occurring within a specific period of time Converting the phase of the measured signal to a voltage which is proportional to the frequency

E7F09 -- What is the purpose of a frequency counter? To provide a digital representation of the frequency of a signal To generate a series of reference signals at known frequency intervals To display all frequency components of a transmitted signal To provide a signal source at a very accurate frequency

E7F10 -- What alternate method of determining frequency, other than by directly counting input pulses, is used by some counters? GPS averaging Period measurement plus mathematical computation Prescaling D/A conversion

E7F11 -- What is an advantage of a period-measuring frequency counter over a direct-count type? It can run on battery power for remote measurements It does not require an expensive high-precision time base It provides improved resolution of low-frequency signals within a comparable time period It can directly measure the modulation index of an FM transmitter

Digital Logic Logic Families Several different technologies can be used to build digital circuits. Vacuum tube. RTL ECL TTL CMOS BiCMOS Tri-State Logic

Digital Logic Logic Families Vacuum tube.

Digital Logic Logic Families Resistor-Transistor-Logic (RTL)

Digital Logic Logic Families Emitter-Coupled-Logic (ECL)

Digital Logic Logic Families Transistor-Transistor-Logic (TTL) +5VDC supply voltage. High level: >2.0 VDC Low level: < 0.8 VDC Threshold: ~0.7 VDC Open inputs assume a high logic state.

Digital Logic Logic Families Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) 3-18 VDC supply voltage. High level: Vdd – 0.1 V. Low level: Vss + 0.1 V. Threshold: ~ ½ supply voltage. High noise immunity. Sensitive to static damage. Low power consumption. Current pulse during switchover.

Digital Logic BiCMOS Logic High input impedance of CMOS. Static-sensitive. Low output impedance of bipolar. Higher power consumption. Complex manufacturing process. More expensive. BiCMOS Logic Combines Bipolar & CMOS devices on same chip. Vout Vdd   Vin T2   T4   T1   T3   CL  

E6A13 -- What do the initials CMOS stand for? Common Mode Oscillating System Complementary Mica-Oxide Silicon Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Common Mode Organic Silicon

E6C01 -- What is the recommended power supply voltage for TTL series integrated circuits? 12 volts 1.5 volts 5 volts 13.6 volts

E6C02 -- What logic state do the inputs of a TTL device assume if they are left open? A logic-high state A logic-low state The device becomes randomized and will not provide consistent high or low-logic states Open inputs on a TTL device are ignored

E6C05 -- Which of the following is an advantage of CMOS logic devices over TTL devices? Differential output capability Lower distortion Immune to damage from static discharge Lower power consumption

E6C06 -- Why do CMOS digital integrated circuits have high immunity to noise on the input signal or power supply? Larger bypass capacitors are used in CMOS circuit design The input switching threshold is about two times the power supply voltage The input switching threshold is about one-half the power supply voltage Input signals are stronger

E6C12 -- What is BiCMOS logic? A logic device with two CMOS circuits per package An FET logic family based on bimetallic semiconductors A logic family based on bismuth CMOS devices An integrated circuit logic family using both bipolar and CMOS transistors

E6C13 -- Which of the following is an advantage of BiCMOS logic? Its simplicity results in much less expensive devices than standard CMOS It is totally immune to electrostatic damage It has the high input impedance of CMOS and the low output impedance of bipolar transistors All of these choices are correct

Optoelectronics Photoconductivity Photoelectric effect. Light striking photosensitive material knocks electrons loose, thereby increasing its conductivity (lower resistance). Most pronounced for crystalline semiconductors. Cadmium-Sulfide: Visible light. Lead-Sulfide: Infra-red light. All semiconductor junctions exhibit photoelectric effect.

E6F01 -- What is photoconductivity? The conversion of photon energy to electromotive energy The increased conductivity of an illuminated semiconductor The conversion of electromotive energy to photon energy The decreased conductivity of an illuminated semiconductor

E6F02 -- What happens to the conductivity of a photoconductive material when light shines on it? It increases It decreases It stays the same It becomes unstable

E6F06 -- Which of these materials is affected the most by photoconductivity? A crystalline semiconductor An ordinary metal A heavy metal A liquid semiconductor

Optoelectronics Optoelectronic Components Phototransistor. A transistor in a clear package to allow light to hit the junction. Transistor turns on when exposed to light. External base connection may or may not be provided.

Optoelectronics Optoelectronic Components Optoisolator or optocoupler. LED & phototransistor in same package Very high impedance between light source & phototransistor. High degree of isolation between control circuit & power circuit.

Optoelectronics Optoelectronic Components Optoisolator or optocoupler. Current transfer ratio (CTR) Ratio of output current to input current. Can use a darlington phototransistor to increase CTR.

Optoelectronics Optoelectronic Components Optical shaft encoder. Used for VFO knobs & other controls in many modern rigs. Using 2 detectors allows speed of rotation to be detected.

E6F03 -- What is the most common configuration of an optoisolator or optocoupler? A lens and a photomultiplier A frequency modulated helium-neon laser An amplitude modulated helium-neon laser An LED and a phototransistor

E6F05 -- Which of the following describes an optical shaft encoder? A device which detects rotation of a control by interrupting a light source with a patterned wheel A device which measures the strength a beam of light using analog to digital conversion A digital encryption device often used to encrypt spacecraft control signals A device for generating RTTY signals by means of a rotating light source.

E6F07 -- What is a solid state relay? A relay using transistors to drive the relay coil A device that uses semiconductor devices to implement the functions of an electromechanical relay A mechanical relay that latches in the on or off state each time it is pulsed A passive delay line

E6F08 -- Why are optoisolators often used in conjunction with solid state circuits when switching 120 VAC? Optoisolators provide a low impedance link between a control circuit and a power circuit Optoisolators provide impedance matching between the control circuit and power circuit Optoisolators provide a very high degree of electrical isolation between a control circuit and the circuit being switched Optoisolators eliminate the effects of reflected light in the control circuit

Optoelectronics Photovoltaic Cells. Photoelectric effect can be used in reverse to generate power.

Optoelectronics Photovoltaic Cells. If sufficient light falls on a P-N junction, free electrons in the N-type material will absorb energy & flow across the junction into the P-type material. Most common material is Silicon. Most efficient material is Gallium-Arsenide. Fully-illuminated junction yields about 0.5 VDC. Rapidly becoming commercially viable for power generation.

E6F04 -- What is the photovoltaic effect? The conversion of voltage to current when exposed to light The conversion of light to electrical energy The conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy The tendency of a battery to discharge when used outside

E6F09 -- What is the efficiency of a photovoltaic cell? The output RF power divided by the input dc power The effective payback period The open-circuit voltage divided by the short-circuit current under full illumination The relative fraction of light that is converted to current

E6F10 -- What is the most common type of photovoltaic cell used for electrical power generation? Selenium Silicon Cadmium Sulfide Copper oxide

E6F11 -- Which of the following is the approximate open-circuit voltage produced by a fully-illuminated silicon photovoltaic cell? 0.1 V 0.5 V 1.5 V 12 V

E6F12 -- What absorbs the energy from light falling on a photovoltaic cell? Protons Photons Electrons Holes

Questions?