Section 1: DNA: The Genetic Material The discovery that DNA is the genetic code involved many experiments.

Review What are the different forms of DNA we have covered so far? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Vocabulary double helix nucleosome Review: nucleic acid New DNA: The Genetic Material Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Chromosome Condensed form of DNA Only Present when DNA is splitting (Mitosis!)

Your Chromosomes

Discovery of the Genetic Material In the early 1900s, scientist began to look for the molecule involved in inheritance. For many years, scientists struggled to determine if DNA or protein was the source of genetic information. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Nucleotides Nucleotides are the rings in the ladder of DNA

Macromolecule: Nucleic Acid Nucleotides Macromolecule: Nucleic Acid Monomer: Nucleotides Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Nucleotides are the subunits of nucleic acids, and consist of… Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Every Nucleotide consists of a base Base Pairs Every Nucleotide consists of a base The Bases pair together making base pairs or the rings of the ladder Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Every Nucleotide consists of a base Base Pairs Every Nucleotide consists of a base Analyzed the amount of A, G, T, and C in the DNA of various species Chargaff’s rule: C = G and T = A Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Car is parked in the Garage DNA Structure 4 Square Base-Pairing Rules A pairs to T C pairs to G Apples fall of a Tree Car is parked in the Garage Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

DNA Structure Now Lets Try It Out.. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/builddna/ Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

DNA Structure The structure question Search for the structure of DNA was lead by four scientists: Rosalind Franklin, British chemist Maurice Wilkins, British physicist Francis Crick, British physicist James Watson, American biologist Each person at your table is going to research one of these scientists and write a paragraph about their contribution to the structure of DNA Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

DNA Structure X-ray diffraction X-ray diffraction techniques indicated that DNA was a double helix, or twisted ladder shape. The double helix shape was formed by two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

DNA Structure Watson and Crick Using Franklin and Chargaff’s data, Watson and Crick measured the width of the helix and the spacing of the bases. They built a model that conformed the Franklin and Chargaff’s data. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

DNA Structure

Chromosome Structure To fit into a cell, DNA coils around a group of beadlike proteins called histones. DNA + histones form a nucleosome, which group together into chromatin fibers, which supercoil to form a chromosome. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Review Essential Questions Which experiments led to the discovery of DNA as the genetic material? What is the basic structure of DNA? What is the basic structure of eukaryotic chromosomes? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA: The Genetic Material

Section 2: Replication of DNA DNA replicates by making a strand that is complementary to each original strand.

Essential Questions What is the role of enzymes in the replication of DNA? How does DNA replication compare in eukaryotes and prokaryotes? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

What do these have in common? New Vocabulary DNA Polymerase DNA Helicase DNA Ligase What do these have in common? Replication of DNA Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

What Stage of the cell cycle would DNA Replicate itself? Review What Stage of the cell cycle would DNA Replicate itself? Replication of DNA Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

DNA Replication During DNA replication, parental strands of DNA separate Produce DNA molecules that have one strand of parental DNA and one strand of new DNA. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication DNA separates and produces an identical DNA molecule 3 Steps: unwinding, pairing, and joining. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication Unwinding DNA helicase, an enzyme, unwinds the helix, breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases Single-stranded binding proteins keep the DNA strands separate during replication. RNA primase adds a short segment of RNA primer, on each DNA strand. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication: Unwinding Part 1: DNA Helicase (enzyme) “The Scissors” DNA helicase unwinds the helix Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication Base pairing The enzyme DNA polymerase adds appropriate nucleotides to the new DNA strand The leading strand is built continuously, the lagging strand is built discontinuously in small segments called Okazaki fragments. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication: Base pairing Part 2: The enzyme DNA polymerase “The Photocopier” Adds appropriate nucleotides to the new DNA strand from the 3’ end. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

DNA Replication: Joining Part 3: DNA Ligase “The Glue” “Ligase  Links” DNA ligase links the two sections. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

Comparing DNA Replication in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes Eukaryotic DNA unwinds in multiple areas as DNA is replicated. In prokaryotes, the circular DNA strand is opened at one origin of replication. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

Review Essential Questions What is the role of enzymes in the replication of DNA? How does DNA replication compare in eukaryotes and prokaryotes? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Replication of DNA

TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION DNA codes for RNA, which guides protein synthesis.

Essential Questions How are the different forms of RNA involved in the transcription and translation of genes? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Vocabulary Review New New Synthesis (To Make Something) RNA messenger RNA ribosomal RNA transfer RNA New transcription RNA polymerase codon translation DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Central Dogma After the discovery of DNA’s structure, scientists turned to investigating how DNA served as a genetic code for the synthesis of proteins. Geneticists accept that the basic mechanism for reading and expressing genes is from DNA to RNA to protein. This is referred to as the central dogma of biology: DNA codes for RNA, which guides the synthesis of proteins. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Central Dogma RNA RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA, but with the sugar ribose, and with uracil instead of thymine. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Central Dogma RNA RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA, but with the sugar ribose, and with uracil instead of thymine. Messenger RNA (mRNA): long strands of RNA that are formed complementary to one strand of DNA; direct synthesis of a specific protein Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): associates with proteins to form ribosomes in the cytoplasm Transfer RNA (tRNA): smaller segments of RNA that transport amino acids to the ribosome Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Transcription First step of the central dogma involves the synthesis of mRNA from DNA Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Transcription The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the specific section where an mRNA will be synthesized. RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand producing mRNA. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

mRNA Messenger RNA (mRNA): M for Messenger long strands of RNA that are formed complementary to one strand of DNA; the code for forming a specific protein DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

The Code Scientists hypothesized that the instructions from protein synthesis were encoded in DNA. Experiments during the 1960s demonstrated that the DNA code was a three-base code. The three-base code in DNA or mRNA is called a codon. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Codon Codon  Code It is the code for what makes you an individual! Three Unit code for making proteins mRNA or DNA DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

The Code Translation After synthesis, mRNA moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where it connects to a ribosome. The mRNA code is read and translated into a protein through a process called translation. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

The Code The role of the ribosome Ribosomes provide a site for protein synthesis. When mRNA leaves the nucleus, the two ribosomal subunits come together to hold the mRNA in place for translation. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): R for Ribosome Ribosomes make proteins! Site of Protein Synthesis DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

The Code The role of the ribosome The ribosome structure has grooves that hold serve as tRNA sites for amino acid attachment. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

The Code Translation tRNA molecules act as the interpreters of the mRNA codon sequence. The tRNA attaches a specific amino acid Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

The Code Translation tRNA contains an anticodon, a complementary sequence to the mRNA codon. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

tRNA Transfer RNA (tRNA) T for Transfer Ribosomes make proteins! smaller segments of RNA that transport amino acids to the ribosome DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Transcription RNA Polymerase Polymerase  Photocopier RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand producing mRNA. This occurs in the nucleus DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Translation Think of Translating English to Spanish Translation is where the code is translated into proteins mRNA moves into the cytoplasm Where it is “read” or “translated” by tRNA The Anticodon is the opposite of the codon DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Translation Macromolecule unit Polymer (Chain)  Protein Monomer (Link)  Amino Acid Attached to tRNA are specific amino acids Amino Acids form proteins when chained together DNA, RNA, and Protein Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Overview

Review Essential Questions Vocabulary How are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA involved in the transcription and translation of genes? What is the role of RNA polymerase in the synthesis of messenger RNA? How is the code of DNA translated into messenger RNA and utilized to synthesize a protein? Vocabulary RNA messenger RNA ribosomal RNA transfer RNA transcription RNA polymerase intron exon codon translation Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education DNA, RNA, and Protein

Section 4: Gene Regulation and Mutation Gene expression is regulated by the cell, and mutations can affect this expression.

Essential Question What are the various types of mutations and what affect do they have upon protein synthesis? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

mutation mutagen Vocabulary Gene Regulation and Mutation Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Eukaryote Gene Regulation RNA interference RNA interference (RNAi) can stop the mRNA from translating its message. Single-stranded small interfering RNA and protein complexes bind to mRNA and stop translation. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Mutations Types of mutations A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation. Point mutation: involve chemical change to just one base pair Missense substitutions: DNA codes for the wrong amino acid Nonsense mutation: Codon for amino acid becomes a stop codon Silent mutation: No affect Insertion/deletion: additions/ loss of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence Cause “frameshifts” Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Point Mutations One Point is changed (sometimes is not that big of a deal) Chemical change to just one base pair Silent: No Affect Missense: Codes for wrong amino acid Nonsense: Codes for a stop codon Gene Regulation and Mutation Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Mutations Types of mutations A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation. Insertion/deletion: additions/ loss of a nucleotide to the DNA sequence Cause “frameshifts” Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Frame shift Mutations One Point is added or deleted (ALWAYS REALLY BAD) Frame shift causes the protein synthesis to be drastically altered Gene Regulation and Mutation Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Add link to interactive table from page 346 (Table 3) here. Mutations Interactive Table FPO Add link to interactive table from page 346 (Table 3) here. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Mutations Protein folding and stability Even small changes in the DNA code can cause genetic disorders. The change in one amino acid can change the sequence of the protein enough to affect both the folding and stability of the protein. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Mutations Causes of mutation Can occur spontaneously – DNA polymerase can attach the wrong nucleotide, but this is rare and usually corrected. Certain chemicals and radiation called mutagens can damage DNA. Chemicals can cause mispairing of base pairs, or themselves substitute for base pairs. High-energy radiation can eject electrons from atoms within the DNA molecule, leaving behind unstable free radicals. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Mutations Body-cell v. sex-cell mutation Somatic cell mutations are not passed on to the next generation. Mutations that occur in sex cells are passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every cell of the offspring. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation

Review Essential Questions What are the various types of mutations? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education Gene Regulation and Mutation