Forestry 545 Materials & Methods Results I – tables February 25, 2014 Dr Sue Watts Faculty of Forestry University of British Columbia Vancouver BC CANADA

General format Title Author(s) affiliations Abstract Introduction Materials & Methods Results Discussion References

Are you a rabbit or a tortoise? or freepicturesweb.com

Are you a rabbit or tortoise? Are you a rabbit or a tortoise writer? Rabbits Hate first drafts Write down everything and anything Use a pen and never erase Finish first draft very quickly May not write a good first draft, but ready to revise

Are you a rabbit or tortoise? Are you a rabbit or a tortoise writer? Tortoises Do not write a sentence unless perfect Begin with one sentence and build on that Revise everything from the first sitting before moving on Take several sittings to finish first draft First draft is strong

Are you a rabbit or tortoise? Decide which approach best fits your style If you are a tortoise, begin with the section that you feel is the most straight forward For many people this is the Materials and Methods section

Are you a rabbit or tortoise? If you are a rabbit, begin with the introduction and just plow straight on quickly getting as much information written as possible

Why have a Methods section? Should have stated methodology in Introduction – even reasons for choice of method However, Methods are the cornerstone of the Scientific Method which requires that results MUST be reproducible

Why have a Methods section? The Methods section describes (and defends if necessary) the experimental design The Methods provide enough detail for a competent worker to reproduce your results Other possible purposes?

 

Why have a Methods section? Provide information to let the reader judge if your method was appropriate (therefore, the validity of findings) Provide information to show the extent to which results can be generalized Most READERS skip the Methods section as they have enough info in the introduction!

Materials and Methods? When do you need a separate Materials section? Only if the materials that you used are numerous and their purification is complex or particularly important

What is in the Methods? Only one rule for the Methods The Methods section should contain sufficient detail to permit the reader to repeat experiments

What is in the Methods? As you write, keep asking the same 2 questions That said, you need to assume that your readers are trained investigators with considerable experience or your Methods section would resemble a lab manual As you write, keep asking the same 2 questions

What is in the Methods? Is the average reader already familiar with this kind of detail? Is this particular detail essential to the experiment?

What is in the Methods? Not too much Not too little You need to be careful to include the right amount of detail Not too much Not too little

Methods - order Chronological or Same order as results or Order of presentation Chronological or Same order as results or Succession of techniques

Methods - order Methods are usually best described in the order in which they were used Example, out of order Cell growth was stopped with sodium chloride after incubation for 65-70 hours at 37 degrees C Example, in order After incubation of cells for 65-70 hours at 37 degrees C, their growth was stopped with sodium chloride

Methods – sub-headings Sub-headings can be useful It may help to break methods up by a succession of techniques But this can be dangerous if techniques do not follow chronology……

Methods – sub-headings For example You could find yourself writing about a method of fertilizer application before a description of the methods used to prepare the fertilizer

Methods – sub-headings Benefits of sub-headings Help with overall organization for readers Readers have some white space for pause Readers can jump to what they really want to read

Methods – sub-headings Possible disadvantages of sub-headings If sections are too short it will make your paper look like a series of titles Too much white space can break the flow

Methods – sub-headings Sub-heading rules Do not use cryptic one–word headings Make sure parallel headings stay that way Cannot have one sub-heading just as you cannot slice a pie into one piece!

Methods - steps Dividing into steps If you decide to divide a process of the methods into steps, try clusters of 2, 3 or 4 so that your audience can remember them

Methods - steps Dividing into steps For example, if you have a process that has 8 logical steps, break into 2 lists of 4 if possible

Methods - steps Dividing into steps Laboratory procedures Field procedures

Writing strategy for Methods If a reader is confused by your strategy for describing your Methods it is usually because this strategy is not appropriate for the audience For each document that you write you need to tailor the strategy for the subject matter and the audience

What to include in Methods Detail to include What if you follow some one else’s method? Unless method is exceptionally common, it is best to explain the principle behind the method (include reference)

What to include in Methods Detail to include What if you modify some one else’s method? Then give details of the modification (include reference)

What to include in Methods Detail to include Only if you have used an entirely new process or technique do you need to describe it in full Do not describe common statistical tests, and do not give any statistical results in this section

What to include in Methods Detail to include If you list a product (eg nitrogen fertilizer), supply the name and location of the manufacturer Use generic or chemical names Avoid trade names when possible

What to include in Methods Detail to include If you do use trade names, capitalize trade name and follow with a generic description ie Kleenex facial tissues Give the model number for equipment Special permits Approval for use of human subjects

Methods - using numbers Numbers can be used to describe most things Quantifiable words are needed for science Numbers are precise and objective

Methods - using numbers Numbers are precise and objective

Methods - using numbers Try to define critical adjectives as numbers What do you mean by tall? What do you mean by heavy? What does “brief” mean?

Methods - using numbers Using numbers Try to define critical adjectives as numbers What do you mean by pain? Give it a 1-10 scale

Be careful with syntax After standing in boiling water for 1 hour, we examined the flask

General manuscript format Title Author(s) affiliations Abstract Introduction Materials & Methods Results Discussion References

Methods Results The most enduring part of your article is the “Recipe” Results This is the centre of your report where you are saying “this is what you too will find if you follow my recipe” Materials & Methods = recipe Results = What happens if you follow the recipe

Results This is the section that constitutes the new knowledge Although this may be the most important section, it is often the shortest Introduction and Methods tell why and how you got the results Discussion tells what your findings mean

Results Results should contain objects of your experiments Results should point out salient features (A is bigger than B, some thing is linear over a given range) Results should allow data to speak for themselves

Results Results must be presented with clarity Your whole paper stands or falls on the basis of your Results section

Value of tables and figures If you have built good tables and figures they will expose both your results and your experimental design In the final text the tables and figures together with the title and the abstract should form a coherent story

Value of tables and figures What do you look at first in an article? Title Abstract Figures Tables Introduction Discussion Results Methods

Recording your data Record EVERYTHING you observe Use count records such as numbers, times, measures

Selecting your data For a manuscript you must be selective Only write about results produced by the recipes in your Materials & Methods Observations in your Results are scientific ONLY when accompanied by the full recipe for repeating them Do not include tid bits, no matter how intriguing

Presenting your data You began your research with an idea of what to expect ….. Your Results section presents your data with organization but without interpretation Set your expectations aside and let your data lead you

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Presenting your data Brachypelma sabulosum 12 cm female 6 stripes 9 cm male 8 stripes 11 cm female 8 stripes 12 cm male 8 stripes 13 cm female 9 stripes 14 cm male 9 stripes 15 cm female 9 stripes Brachypelma angustum 10 cm male 6 stripes 7 cm male 7 stripes

Presenting your data Female 12 cm 6 stripes 17 cm 7 stripes

Presenting your data 6 stripes (10 cm) 5 cm 8 stripes 8 stripes (5 cm, 7 cm, 9 cm, 11 cm, 12 cm) 9 stripes (13 cm, 14 cm, 15 cm) 5 cm 8 stripes 7 cm 7 stripes 7 cm 8 stripes 9 cm 8 stripes 10 cm 6 stripes 11 cm 8 stripes 12 cm 6 stripes 12 cm 8 stripes 13 cm 9 stripes 14 cm 9 stripes 15 cm 9 stripes 17 cm 7 stripes

Presenting your data Rearrange observation in different ways In each arrangement look for patterns Pick one of the simpler patterns for your paper Look for neat concise patterns that include most of the data without tweaking

Remember the 12 steps? Step # 10 Construct tables and figures Do you have any “gaps”? If so, need to return to your experiments Would additional examples give more confidence in a trend? This is why you dealt with your tables and figures before you sat down to write

Results have 2 parts Overall description of experiments giving the “big picture” Presentation of specific data

Big picture Results Need to present an overall picture without repeating any experimental details from the Materials & Methods Describe what would have happened in the control situation, the natural setting, a wide angle view, what you first observed at the site

Specific data In a manuscript present representative data not endlessly repetitive data The fool collects facts; the wise man selects them!

Specific data If you have only a few determinations then describe these in the text Tabulate those variables that affect the reaction (do not tabulate or present variables not affecting reaction)

Specific data May be important to describe negative aspects of your results May need to state what you did not find under the conditions of your experiments

Specific data Do not use statistics unless they are useful! 33.3% of the trees in this experiment increased in height 33.3% of the test population were unaffected by the treatment the third tree died before it could be measured

Specific data Begin with those variables that cannot be easily quantified (texture, shape, colour) and say how these variables changed This may be where you refer to illustrations and diagrams

Specific data Next, describe key variables that you have quantified Look at patterns and point them out to the reader “In our sample of 12 spiders, most had 8 stripes”

Specific data You may have consolidated your data into tables and graphs Refer to each table or graph with a brief summary in the text

Most common errors Do not repeat in words what is already apparent from tables and figures Worse still…. Do not present the data shown in the tables or figures in the text as well

Most common errors Do not be verbose when citing tables or figures ..it is clearly shown in Table 1 that light inhibited tree growth X ..light inhibited tree growth (Table 1) 

Most common errors Do not go too far in avoiding verbiage “the left leg became numb at times and she walked it off… On her second day, the knee was better, on the third day it had completely disappeared” Antecedent is “numbness” but wording was a result of dumbness!

Using visual aids in Results What is a visual aid? Do you know how Cindy would answer this? To an editor, every visual aid is an illustration Every illustration that is not a table is a figure

Figures as visual aids What do we mean by figures? line graphs & scatter graphs bar graphs & histograms pictograms algorithms maps drawings photographs

When do you use visual aids? Most important question to ask is “Is this illustration really necessary?” Do not include an illustration just because you have it A line in the text may be all you need

Using visual aids in Results Purpose – for the reader Allows self-discovery of the paper Helps readers verify written claims Saves reading time Provides direct (shortcut) and pleasurable (memorable) access to writer’s contribution

Using visual aids in Results Purpose – for the writer Makes the paper more concise by replacing many words Motivates readers to read more, yet allows them not to read all Provides compelling evidence Enables writer to represent complex relationships Captures the reader’s attention

Do you need this illustration? Effect of temperature on growth of oak (Quercus) seedlings Temp (0 C) Growth in 48 h (mm) -50 0 -40 0 -30 0 -20 0 -10 0 0 0 10 0 20 7 30 8 40 1 50 0 60 0 70 0 80 0 90 0 100 0 Day and Gastel 2006 Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all) Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying) Create custom chart! Make rectangle and size excel chart Past chart as picture Right click and ungroup Fix x axis

Do you need this illustration? What did it tell you? Oak seedlings grew at temperatures between 20 and 40 degrees centigrade No measurable growth at less than 20 or more than 40 degrees

Choice of illustration – table? Effect of streptomycin, isoniazid, and streptomycin plus isoniazid on Mycobacterium tuberculosis Percentage of negative cultures at: Treatment 2 wk 4 wk 6 wk 8 wk Streptomycin 5 10 15 20 Isoniazid 8 12 15 15 Streptomycin 30 60 80 100 + isoniazid Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all) Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying) Create custom chart! Make rectangle and size excel chart Past chart as picture Right click and ungroup Fix x axis Day and Gastel 2006

Choice of illustration – graph? Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all) Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying) Create custom chart! Make rectangle and size excel chart Past chart as picture Right click and ungroup Fix x axis Effect of streptomycin, isoniazid , and streptomycin plus isoniazid on Mycobacterium tuberculosis Day and Gastel 2006

Choice of illustration Need to know your audience Something prepared for one audience may not work for another Visuals for a talk (or poster) may need to be very different than for a journal

Choice of illustration Check your journal requirements Some journals limit illlustrations due to costs Colour may be out of your budget!

How many illustrations? General rule One illustration per 1,000 words (average page double-spaced is 250 words) This translates to one table or figure per 4 pages of manuscript text

Paradox Good tables and figures should both stand alone and be an indispensable part of the text

Illustrations must be free-standing Reader must be able to understand an illustration without referring to the text Title must  be adequate Heading must be explanatory Data must be arranged logically so that significance is obvious at a glance 1 2 3 4 5

Text reference to illustrations Text must refer to tables and figures by number Narrative should clarify why the information is needed Table 1 gives the results X Affected trees were significantly smaller in diameter (Table 1) 

When to use tables Very useful when initially organizing your data “Useful” is not a good enough reason to include in a manuscript Always prune extraneous material for a manuscript

When to use tables That said – Tables can be a very good way of presenting complex information in a way that invites comparison Rule is to use a table when putting same data in text would take at least 3 x the space

Table titles Two parts: 1. General subject Deer deaths in British Columbia. 2. Enough detail to make sense without the text Incidence of white-tailed deer fatalities in British Columbia, 2000 -2010

Table titles Some journals promote declarative titles Check with journal style guide

Table title (classic style) Fractured clavicles and birth weight Deliveries Fractured clavicles Birth weight g n % n % - 2500 434 8.5 9 2.07 2501 - 3000 1395 27.3 45 3.23 3001 - 3500 2047 40.0 108 5.28 3501 - 4000 1049 20.5 111 10.58 4001 - 193 3.7 24 12.44 All 5118 100.0 297 5.80 Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all) Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying) Create custom chart! Make rectangle and size excel chart Past chart as picture Right click and ungroup Fix x axis Gustavii 2002

Table title (declarative style) Increase in fractured clavicles with birth weight Deliveries Fractured clavicles Birth weight, g n % n % - 2500 434 8.5 9 2.07 2501 - 3000 1395 27.3 45 3.23 3001 - 3500 2047 40.0 108 5.28 3501 - 4000 1049 20.5 111 10.58 4001 - 193 3.7 24 12.44 All 5118 100.0 297 5.80 Slide background – delete extra shapes and apply (not to all) Make chart in excel (use chart area background to see white lines and fonts then clear before copying) Create custom chart! Make rectangle and size excel chart Past chart as picture Right click and ungroup Fix x axis Gustavii 2002

Table format It is easier to compare data down a column than across a row 2 5 7 3 8 5 7 3 8 Place independent variable in the rows and dependent variable in the columns

Table format May want to give row and column averages Do not use fractions (only decimals) Do not switch units in one column Show units as part of column headings Fill ALL cells (**, NA for blanks) Use symbols or letter for footnotes

Table format Arrange like elements down, not across Words in a column are left aligned Numbers are right aligned Tables should not have vertical lines Standard abbreviations are encouraged, no periods

Printer / journal needs Most journals are 1 or 2 columns They will prefer to have small tables fitting to 1 column Larger tables cannot always be placed where you would like Adjust spacing in a table to create perceptual order to data

Illustration proportions 1 1.5 For CJFR, 1 column width is 8.6 cm 2 column width is 18.2 cm Page length is 23.7 cm

Tables should not be “word lists” Adverse effects of Nicklecillin in 24 adult patients No of patients Side effect 14 Diarrhea 5 Eosinophilia (≥ 5eos/mm3) 2 Metallic taste 1 Yeast vaginitis Mild rise in urea nitrogen Hematuria (8-10 rbc/hpf) Day and Gastel 2006

Avoid plus and minus signs Oxygen requirement of various species of Streptomyces Organism Growth under aerobic conditions Growth under anaerobic conditions Streptomyces griseus + - S coelicolor S nocolor S everycolor S greenicus S rainbowensky Day and Gastel 2006

Reading across is less effective Characteristics of antibiotic-producing Streptomyces Determination S fluoricolor S griseus S coelicolor Optimal growth temp (0c) -10 24 28 Colour of mycelium Tan Gray Red Antibiotic produced Fluoricillinimycin Streptomycin Rholmondelay Yield of antibiotic (mg/ml) 4,108 78 2 Day and Gastel 2006

Reading down is more effective Characteristics requirement of four species of Streptomyces Organism Optimal growth temp (0C) Colour of mycelium Antibiotic produced Yield of antibiotic (mg/ml) S fluoricolor -10 Tan Fluoricillinmycin 4,108 S griseus 24 Gray Streptomycin 78 S coelicolor 28 Red Rholmondelay 2 S nocolor 92 Purple Nomycin Day and Gastel 2006

Too much accuracy? Male and female exam scores 2008 - 2014 2008 2010 2012 2014 Men 159.61 350.73 395.35 399.41 Women 100.31 152.46 220.27 310.64 Total 259.92 503.19 615.65 710.05

Data rounded off (easier to read) Male and female exam scores 2008 - 2014 2008 2010 2012 2014 Men 160 351 395 399 Women 100 152 220 311 Total 260 503 615 710

A well constructed table Induction of creatinine deaminase in Costridium sp Strains XP32 and XP56 N source Clostridium sp strain XP32 Clostridium sp strain XP56 Total enzyme Sp act (U/mg of protein) Sp act (U/mg of protein) Ammonia 0.58 0.32 0.50 0.28 Glutamic acid 5.36 1.48 2.18 0.61 Aspartic acid 2.72 0.15 1.47 0.06 Arginine 3.58 2.8 3.38 2.19 Creatinine 97.30 58.40 104.00 58.30 Day and Gastel 2006

Summary of table rules Split large tables to smaller ones Make 1 summary table rather than several smaller ones Provide clear captions Round off numbers for easy comparisons Consider including averages Use same layout for a series of tables To be continued next week…