Writing the Argumentative Essay By Caryl Bishop

Argumentation “. . . the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act.”

Structure of Argument Claim Support Warrant Proposition Evidence Motivational Appeals Warrant Assumption(s) that have been taken for granted

Features of Argumentation Writer Develop your own ETHOS or borrow from established authority Audience Know your audience and be sensitive to their views Text Use the language to make your point, but be careful not to misuse language

The Writer Ethos Your own Borrow from authority You must look like you know what you’re talking about Educate yourself on the issue(s) before writing Borrow from authority Be sure to give appropriate credit where due

The Audience Who is your audience? Qualities you should presume of your audience: Assume they are as knowledgeable about your topic as you are. Assume they are aware of common knowledge. Assume they could be fundamentally opposed to your argument and be sensitive to their prejudices – Don’t Alienate Your Audience

The Text Argue from logic and reason Avoid fallacious logic Do NOT base your entire argument on: Emotion Religious Conviction Tradition Avoid fallacious logic There are a multitude of formal errors in logic, known as FALLACIES

Some Common Fallacies Hasty Generalization Faulty Use of Authority Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc False Analogy Ad Hominem False Dilemma Slippery Slope

Hasty Generalization Black or White thinking Prejudice Drawing Hasty Conclusions Insufficient Evidence

Faulty Use of Authority Misuse of a source Misquoting Fitting the quotation to your own needs If four out of five dentists prefer Colgate, don’t use the one dentist who prefers Crest as your authority!

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc “After this, therefore because of this” Faulty Cause and Effect Reasoning

False Analogy Faulty Connection Between Two Things Being Compared

Ad Hominem “Against the Man” Attacking the person rather than attacking an issue. If you don’t like this administration’s policies, and want to see them changed, don’t attack the President, address the issues you want changed.

False Dilemma “Black or White Fallacy” There are only two alternatives, no room for compromise and no grey areas. Nearly every issue has at least two sides, and somewhere, someone has determined that the OTHER side is the only legitimate approach. Nothing is black and white; there are shades of grey everywhere!

Slippery Slope The assumption that “A” will inevitably lead to “B” Then “B” will inevitably lead to “C” And so on…

More Common Fallacies Begging the Question The Straw Man Fallacy “Two Wrongs Make a Right” Non-Sequitur Ad Populum Appeal to Tradition Faulty Emotional Appeal

Begging the Question Circular Reasoning The statement being argued actually assumes the issue has already been proven true. An argument that assumes itself Circular Reasoning

Straw Man Fallacy Set up a slightly different problem and attack it, rather than the problem at issue Diverts attention away from the real issue “Wag the Dog”

“Two Wrongs Make A Right” “But all my friends are doing it…” Diverts attention away from the question at issue

Non-Sequitur “It does not follow” Erroneous Cause and Effect Reasoning Uses irrelevant information to back of a claim

Ad Populum Appeals to the prejudices of the people Appeals to popular opinion Appeals to what you believe your teacher wants to hear

Appeal to Tradition “But we’ve always done it that way before…” Just because it has always been that way doesn’t make it right

Faulty Emotional Appeals Don’t base your whole claim on an appeal to emotion Don’t use emotional appeals that are Irrelevant to the argument Draw attention away from the real issue Appear to conceal another purpose