What is a star? A cloud of gas, mainly hydrogen and helium The core is so hot and dense that nuclear fusion can occur. The fusion converts light elements into heavier ones

Every star is different All the stars in the night sky are different Brightness: Tells us how luminous the star is, i.e. How much energy is being produced in the core Colour: Tells us the surface temperature of the star

Units of luminosity We measure the luminosity of every day objects in Watts. How bright is a light bulb? By comparison, the Sun outputs: 380,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Watts (380 million million million million Watts!) This is easier to right as 3.8 x 1026 Watts To make things easier we measure the brightness of stars relative to the Sun.

Units of temperature Temperature is measured in Kelvin The Kelvin temperature scale is the same as the Celsius scale, but starts from -273o. This temperature is known as “absolute zero” -273 oC -173 oC 0 oC 100 oC 1000 oC 0 K 100 K 273 K 373 K 1273 K Kelvin = Celsius + 273

Measuring the temperature The temperature of a star is indicated by its colour Blue stars are hot, and red stars are cold Red star 3,000 K Yellow star 5,000 K Blue star 10,000 K

The Hertzsprung Russell Diagram We can compare stars by showing a graph of their temperature and luminosity

Luminosity (relative to Sun) We start by drawing the axes: Luminosity up the vertical axis (measured relative to the Sun) Temperature along the horizontal axis (measured in Kelvin) 10,000 The stars Vega and Sirius are brighter than the Sun, and also hotter. Where would you put them? 100 Where would you mark the Sun on the plot? It has Luminosity of 1 relative to itself Its temperature is 5800 K Vega Sirius Main Sequence Luminosity (relative to Sun) 1 Sun In fact, most stars can be found somewhere along a line in this graph. This is called the “Main Sequence”. Some stars are much cooler and less luminous, such as the closest star to the Sun, Proxima Centauri. Where would you plot these? These stars are called red dwarfs. Proxima Centauri 0.01 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Luminosity (relative to Sun) The bright star Betelgeuse is even more luminous than Aldebaran, but has a cooler surface. This makes it a red supergiant. Betelgeuse Rigel 10,000 Deneb Aldebaran Arcturus 100 Vega Sirius Main Sequence Luminosity (relative to Sun) 1 Sun Even brighter than Betelgeuse are stars like Deneb and Rigel, which are much hotter. These are blue supergiants. But not all stars lie on the main sequence. Some, such as Arcturus and Aldebaran, are much brighter than the Sun, but cooler. Where would these lie on the diagram? These are orange giant stars. Sirius B Proxima Centauri 0.01 Some of the hottest stars are actually much fainter than the Sun. Which corner would they be in? These are white dwarfs, such as Sirius B which orbits Sirius. 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Luminosity (relative to Sun) Supergiants Betelgeuse Rigel 10,000 Deneb Giants Arcturus 100 Vega Sirius Main Sequence Luminosity (relative to Sun) Almost all stars we see are in one of these groups, but they don’t stay in the same place. 1 Sun Sirius B Proxima Centauri As stars evolve they change in luminosity and temperature. This makes them move around the Hertzprung-Russell diagram. 0.01 White Dwarfs 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Luminosity (relative to Sun) 10,000 100 Luminosity (relative to Sun) 1 Sun The Sun has been on the Main Sequence for billions of years, and will remain there for billions more. But eventually it will swell into a giant star, becoming more luminous but cooler. 0.01 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Luminosity (relative to Sun) 10,000 100 Sun Luminosity (relative to Sun) 1 At this point it is a red giant star. It will get then hotter and slightly brighter, briefly becoming a blue giant. 0.01 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Luminosity (relative to Sun) 10,000 Sun 100 Luminosity (relative to Sun) 1 Finally nuclear fusion in the core will cease. The Sun will become a white dwarf, far less luminous than its but with a hotter surface temperature. 0.01 0.0001 25,000 10,000 7,000 5,000 3,000 Temperature (Kelvin)

Nuclear fusion The luminosity of a star is powered by nuclear fusion taking place in the centre of the star The temperature and density are sufficient to allow nuclear fusion to occur. Stars are primarily composed of hydrogen, with small amounts of helium. They are so hot that the electrons are stripped from the atomic nuclei. This ionised gas is called a plasma.

The proton-proton chain At temperatures above 4 million Kelvin hydrogen nuclei fuse into helium

Running out of hydrogen The star is kept in a delicate balance between gravity trying to collapse it and radiation pushing it outwards. As the hydrogen runs out, the energy released from fusion decreases and the gravity causes the star to collapse. If the star is massive enough the core temperature increases until helium fusion starts.

Helium burning At temperatures above 100 million Kelvin helium can be fused to produce carbon. This reaction is called the “Triple Alpha process”

Heavier elements Helium is fused with carbon to make heavier elements: oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulphur, argon, calcium, titanium, chromium and iron It’s impossible to make elements heavier than through nuclear fusion without putting in more energy.

Running out of helium Eventually the helium is exhausted, and the star collapses again. If it is massive enough, then the temperature increases enough to allow carbon fusion. The cycle repeats, fusing heavier elements each time, until the core temperature cannot rise any higher. At this point, the star dies.