The Kennedy Years

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Founded in 1942 Created to apply the Gandhi’s model of non-violent resistance to the American civil rights movement, opposing Jim Crow laws in the South and housing and employment inequities in northern cities

Freedom Riders Teams of black and white CORE volunteers traveled into the South on buses to try to forcibly integrate bus terminals as had been ordered by federal courts, but ignored by most local governments These riders were attacked by angry white mobs in Alabama, and in Birmingham were met and beaten by members of the KKK who had been tipped off by the local police

James Meredith & the University of Mississippi 1933 – Present In Sept. 1962, tried to register at the Univ. of Mississippi under a court-order, but was blocked by Gov. Ross Barnett President Kennedy ordered 500 US Marshalls to escort Meredith onto campus, but an angry mob attacked the Marshalls, forcing Kennedy to use US Army troops to protect Meredith Meredith went on to be a civil rights activist, was shot while leading a protest march, and later served on the staff of Sen. Jesse Helms

Medgar Evers 1925 – 1963 WWII veteran who became a civil rights activist and officer in the NAACP who helped gain James Meredith admission to Univ. of Mississippi Was shot and killed in front of his home by a member of the KKK No one was convicted of his killing until 1994

“Bull” Connor 1897 – 1973 Public Safety Commissioner in Birmingham, AL, known for his use of brutal police tactics to enforce segregation and who allowed the attacks on the Freedom Riders In 1963, Connor was running for mayor when Dr. King decided to stage protests in Birmingham designed to provoke a violent response and discredit Connor’s campaign

“Letter from a Birmingham Jail” King was arrested and held in solitary confinement King used the time to compose a letter which explained his rationale for using non-violent protest even when faced with brutally violent tactics by his opponents After King was released, Connor ordered police to use clubs, dogs, and fire-hoses on King’s supporters, all of which was shown on national television to a stunned American audience

George Wallace 1919 – 1998 June 1963: Alabama Governor blocked the admission of black students at the Univ. of Alabama, provoking President Kennedy to call on Congress to enact a new civil rights bill Wallace later went on to run for President 4 times, backing away from his segregationist stance and was shot and paralyzed while campaigning in 1972

March on Washington August 28, 1963 Dr. King wanted to lobby Congress for passage of Kennedy’s civil rights bill and organized a massive rally on the mall in Washington, DC More than 200,000 attended to hear King and others speak

“I Have a Dream” "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'" "I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.“ “And when this happens … we will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual: Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!”

16th Street Church Bombing Sept. 15, 1963 Birmingham, AL Members of the KKK bombed a black church which was frequently used as a meeting place for civil rights leaders, killing 4 girls aged 11 to 14 No one was convicted of the crime until 1977

Lyndon B. Johnson President Kennedy was assassinated before he could gain passage of the new civil rights bill, but President Johnson, a Southerner, committed himself to pushing the bill through in Kennedy’s memory and had the connections in Congress to make it happen.