SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE FACULTY OF FORESTRY AND NATURE CONSERVATION. DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT BARCHELOR OF SCIENCE IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT COURSE NAME: WILDLIFE NUTRITION. COURSE ANTE: WLM 210 ASSIGNMENT 01 NAME OF INSTRUCTOR: Dr. MBIJE, Nsajigwa. STUDENTS’ NAMES 1 MWANGA, Lilian Fredy WLM/D/2013/0021 2 KAROMBA, James. WLM/E/12/T/0058 3. KILEO, Irene G. WLM/D/2013/0005 4. SHAO, Epifani Melkiory WLM/D/2013/0038 5. MWAKALASYA, Twambilile WLM/D/2013/0070 6. MWAMBINGU, Deborah WLM/D/2013/0061 7. BAHATI, Monica WLM/D/2013/0016 8. MWARABU, Ramadhani R. WLM/D/2013/0063 9. MICHAEL, Vicent WLM/D/2013/0064 10. MASSAY, Anatoli Anthony WLM/D/2013/0035 11. CHAMBA, Isaac Yohana WLM/D/2013/0043 12. KABASI, Boniphace WLM/D/2013/0062

Contents. 1. Introduction 2. Characteristics of Lipids. 3. Occurrence of Lipids (in nature and its chemical formula) 4. Methods of Lipids quantification/laboratory analysis 5. Value of Lipids to wild animals (Stress....!!) 6. Deficiency syndrome (animal specific) 7. How To Enhance Lipids Availability

INTRODUCTION Lipid is a type of nutrient. Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrocarbons which are the foundation for the structure and function of living cells Lipids are non polar so they are soluble in non polar environments thus not being water soluble because water is polar. 

CHARACTERS OF LIPIDS Lipids are relatively insoluble in water. They are soluble in non-polar solvents, like ether, chloroform, methanol. Lipids have high energy content and are metabolized to release calories. Lipids also act as electrical insulators, they insulate nerve axons

Plant oils are unsaturated and are liquid at room temperatures. Contin… Fats contain saturated fatty acids, they are solid at room temperatures. Example, animal fats. Plant oils are unsaturated and are liquid at room temperatures.  Pure fats are colorless, they have extremely bland taste.  The fats are sparingly soluble in water and hence are described are hydrophobic substances.  They are freely soluble in organic solvents like ether, acetone and benzene.  The melting point of fats depends on the length of the chain of the constituent fatty acid and the degree of unsaturation. 

Contin… Geometric isomerism, the presence of double bond in the unsaturated fatty acid of the lipid molecule produces geometric or cis-trans isomerism.  Fats have insulating capacity, they are bad conductors of heat.  Emulsification is the process by which a lipid mass is converted to a number of small lipid droplets. The process of emulsification happens before the fats can be absorbed by the intestinal walls. 

Contin… The fats are hydrolyzed by the enzyme lipases to yield fatty acids and glycerol.  The hydrolysis of fats by alkali is called saponification. This reaction results in the formation of glycerol and salts of fatty acids called soaps.  Hydrolytic rancidity is caused by the growth of microorganisms which secrete enzymes like lipases. These split fats into glycerol and free fatty acids. 

Occurrence of Lipids (in nature and its chemical formula)

Lipids are naturally occurring organic compounds, commonly known as oils and fats. Fat- animal origin Oil-plant origin Lipids occur through out the living world in  microorganisms, higher plants and animals and also in all cell types. Lipids contribute to cell structure, provide stored fuel and also take part in many biological processes.

Types of Lipids and Chemical Formula

i) Simple Lipids or Homolipids Simple lipids are the esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.  a) Fats and Oils (triglycerides and triacylglycerols) - These are esters of fatty acids with a trihydroxy alcohol, glycerol. A fat is solid at ordinary room temperature, an oil is liquid. Simple Triglycerides - Simple triglycerides are one in which three fatty acids radicles are similar or are of the same type. Example: Tristearin, Triolein. Mixed Triglycerides are one in which the three fatty acids radicles are different from each other. Example: distearo-olein, dioleo-palmitin.  b) Waxes  are the esters of fatty acids with high molecular weight monohydroxy alcohols. Example: Beeswax, Carnauba wax. 

ii) Compound Lipids or Heterolipids Heterolipids are esters of fatty acids with alcohol and possess additional groups also.  a) Phospholipids or Phosphatids are compound containing fatty acids and glycerol in addition to a phosphoric acid, nitrogen bases and other substituents. They usually possess one hydrophilic head and tow non- polar tails. They are called polar lipids and are amphipathic in nautre.  Phospholipids can be phosphoglycerides, phosphoinositides and phosphosphingosides.

Phosphoglycerides are major phospholipids, they are found in membranes Phosphoglycerides are major phospholipids, they are found in membranes. It contains fatty acid molecules which are esterified to hydroxyl groups of glycerol. The glycerol group also forms an ester linkage with phosphoric acid. Example: Lecithin, Cephalins. Phosphoinositides are said to occur in phospholipids of brain tissue and soybeans. The play important role in transport processes in cells. Phosphosphingosides are commonly found in nerve tissue. Example: sphingomyelins.   b) Glycolipids are the compounds of fatty acids with carbohydrates and contain nitrogen but no phosphoric acid. The glycolipids also include certain structurally related compounds comprising the groups gangliosides, sulpholipids and sulfatids. 

iii) Derived Lipids Derived lipids are the substances derived from simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis. These includes fatty acids, alcohols, monoglycerides and diglycerides, steroids, terpenes, carotenoids.  The most common derived lipids are steroids, terpenes and carotenoids. Steroids do not contain fatty acids, they are non-saponifiable, and are not hydrolyzed on heating. They are widely distributed in animals, where they are associated with physiological processes. Example: Estranes, androstranes, etc.

Terpenes in majority are found in plants. Example: Natural rubber Terpenes in majority are found in plants. Example: Natural rubber. gernoil, etc. Carotenoids are tetraterpenes. They are widely distributed in both plants and animals. They are exclusively of plant origin. Due to the presence of many conjugated double bonds, they are colored red or yellow. Example: Lycopene, carotenes, Xanthophylls.

Fatty acids Essential fatty acids are those that cannot be constructed through any chemical pathways, known to happen in humans. They must be obtained from the diet. Linoleic acid and linolenic acid are the essential fatty acids. Non-essential fatty acids are those which are not necessary to be taken through diet, they are synthesized through chemical pathways. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. The two carbon atoms are bound to each other through double bonds and can occur in cis or trans configuration. Saturated fatty acids are long chain carboxylic acids and do not have double bonds. Example: Arachidic acid, Palmitic acid, etc.

Methods of Lipids quantification/laboratory analysis

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF LIPIDS Is the process of determining the amount or extent of Lipids in the food substance. The calculation, expression of the number ,degree of Lipids can be determined through laboratory analysis.

METHODS OF QUANTIFICATION There are three methods of lipids quantifications which are; 1:Chromatography 2:Instrumental techniques 3:Detergent Method 4:Chemical techniques

1. Chromatography Chromatography is one of the most powerful analytical procedures for separating and analyzing the properties of lipids, especially when combined with techniques which can be used to identify the chemical structure of the peaks, e.g., mass spectrometry. This involves passing a mixture of the molecules to be separated through a column that contains a matrix capable of selectively retarding the flow of the molecules. Molecules in the mixture are separated because of their differing affinities for the matrix in the column. The stronger the affinity between a specific molecule and the matrix, the more its movement is retarded, and the slower it passes through the column

Contin… After being separated by the column, the concentration of each of the molecules is determined as they pass by a suitable detector (e.g., UV- visible, fluorescence, or flame ionization). Chromatography can be used to determine the complete profile of molecules present in a lipid. Various forms of chromatography are available to analyze the lipids in foods, e.g. thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).

2. Instrumental techniques A variety of instrumental methods can also be used to provide information about lipid composition. The most powerful of these is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. 2.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. By measuring the chemical shift spectra it is possible to determine the concentration of specific types of chemical groups present, which can be used to estimate the concentration of different types of lipids. Indirect information about the average molecular weight and degree of unsaturation of the oils can be obtained by measuring physical properties, such as density or refractive index.

2.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy Contin…….. The refractive index increases with increasing chain length and increasing unsaturation, whereas the density decreases with increasing chain length and decreasing unsaturation. Measurements of the refractive index or density can therefore be used to monitor processes that involve a change in the composition of oils, e.g. hydrogenation, which decreases the degree of unsaturation

2.2 Grease spot test Rub a drop of the sample into a piece of paper. Allow time for any water to evaporate gentle warming will speed up the process Observation. Apermanent transparent spot on the paper implies the presence of Lipid in a particular sample.

3. Detergent Method. This method was developed to overcome the inconvenience and safety concerns associated with the use of highly corrosive acids. A sample is mixed with a combination of surfactants in a Babcock bottle. The surfactants displace the fat globule membrane which surrounds the emulsion droplets in milk and causes them to coalesce and separate. The sample is centrifuged which allows the fat to move into the graduated neck of the bottle, where its concentration can then be determined.

Chemical Techniques TEST OBSERVATION BASIS OF TEST SUDAN III Sudan III is a red dye. Add 2cm^3 oil to 2cm^3 of water in a test tube.Add a few drops of Sudan III and shake A red - stained oil layer separate on the surface of the water,which remain uncoloured Fat globules are stain red and are less dense than water Emulsion test Add 2cm^3 fat or oil to a test tube containing 2cm^3 of absolute ethanol. Dissolve the lipid by shaking vigorously.Add an equal volume of cold water A cloudy white suspension Lipids are immiscible with water.Adding water to a solution of the lipid in alcohol results in an emulsion of tiny lipids droplets in the water which reflects light and gives a white opalescent appearance

Value of Lipids to wild animals(Stress....!!)

Aid cell membrane development, strength and function VALUE OF LIPIDS TO WILD ANIMALS. Aid cell membrane development, strength and function Serve as fuel for muscular contraction and general metabolism. Hormone synthesis E.g. sex hormones such as Oestrogen and Luteinizing. Lipids also used by animals as a source of energy and also as a food reserve.

Contin… Play as vital role in maintaining health skin and hair or fur. Act as an insulator body organ against shock in temperate environment. Vitamin D is a fat –soluble vitamin produced in the skin on exposure to UV-radiation and necessary for normal bone growth. Aid in signal transmission especially in myelinated neuron, which speed up the rate of impulse transmissions.

Deficiency syndrome(animal specific)

DEFICIENCY SYNDROME OF LIPID SPECIFIC TO ANIMAL. A reduction of lipids on the skin can cause pyoderma (skin disease) Wound healing can also be impaired due to the requirement of phospholipids’ within the cells membranes. Chronic deficiency of lipids, especially of the Essential Fatty Acids (EFA), symptoms of alopecia (loss or absence of fur, feathers and even hairs in primates)

Contin…. Edema which is fluid accumulation between tissue cells It also affects the skeletal muscles of the heart which cause irregular heartbeat also affects gizzard in birds Severe deficiencies can result in emaciation of the animal and finally death of the animal

reduced egg production and decreased hatchability mostly in chicken. Contin….. Can cause reproductive failure that cause embryonic degeneration especially in rats and turkey, sterility especially in rat and guinea pigs, reduced egg production and decreased hatchability mostly in chicken. Deficiencies have been observed in captive wildlife animal particularly those fed on fish based diets although live or fresh fish are good source of the vitamins.

How To Enhance Lipids Availability

How to Enhance Lipids availability Lipids are simply fats and can be obtained from eating fatty foods, there are many types of lipids, some of which have more health benefits than others. Some examples of lipid-rich foods include meats, oils, butter, nuts, eggs and avocados. The main way of enhancing lipid availability in the animal body is through chemical processes where fats are metabolically formed within the body by the process known as Lipogenesis, where fatty acids and glycerol made available as the end products of Lipid emulsification following a meal that contains lipids are esterified.

Also animal body has ability to undergo a process known as Liponeogenesis. This refers to formation of fat, mostly in the liver and adipose tissue and lactating mammary gland, and principally from glucose and acetate in the ruminant.

Processes for Fatty acids and Glycerol availability a)Intestine intake Short- and medium chain fatty acids are absorbed directly into the blood via intestine capillaries intestine capillaries and travel through the portal vein. Long-chain fatty acids, on the other hand, are too large to be directly released into the tiny intestine capillaries. Instead they are coated with cholesterol and protein (protein coat of lipoproteins) into a compound called a chylomicron. The chylomicron enters a lymphatic capillary and enters into the bloodstream first at the left subclavian vein (having bypassed the liver). In any case, the concentration of blood fatty acids increase temporarily after a meal.

b) Cell uptake After a meal, when the blood concentration of fatty acids rises, there is an increase in uptake of fatty acids in different cells of the body, mainly liver cells, adipocytes and muscle cells. This uptake is stimulated by insulin from the pancreas. As a result, the blood concentration of fatty acid stabilizes again after a meal.

c) Cell secretion After a meal, some of the fatty acids taken up by the liver is converted into Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) and again secreted into the blood. In addition, when a long time has passed since the last meal, the concentration of fatty acids in the blood decreases, which triggers adipocytes to release stored fatty acids into the blood as free fatty acids, in order to supply e.g. muscle cells with energy. In any case, also the fatty acids secreted from cells are anew taken up by other cells in the body, until entering fatty acid metabolism.

2. Cholesterol The fate of cholesterol in the blood is highly determined by its constitution of lipoproteins, where some types favour transport towards body tissues and others towards the liver for excretion into the intestines. The average amount of blood cholesterol varies with age, typically rising gradually until an animal is fully matured. There appear to be seasonal variations in cholesterol levels in animals, more, on average, in winter.

a) Intestine intake In lipid digestion, cholesterol is packed into Chylomicrons in the small intestine, which are delivered to the Portal vein and Lymph. The chylomicrons are ultimately taken up by liver hepatocytes via interaction between apolipoprotein E and the (Low-density lipoprotein receptor) LDL receptor or Lipoprotein receptor-related proteins.

b) In lipoproteins Cholesterol is minimally soluble in water; it cannot dissolve and travel in the water-based bloodstream. Instead, it is transported in the bloodstream by lipoproteins - protein "molecular-suitcases" that are water-soluble and carry cholesterol and triglycerides internally. The apolipoproteins forming the surface of the given lipoprotein particle determine from what cells cholesterol will be removed and to where it will be supplied.

c) Intestine excretion After being transported to the liver by High-Density Lipoprotein, cholesterol is delivered to the intestines via bile production. However, 92-97% is reabsorbed in the intestines and recycled via enterohepatic circulation. d) Cell uptake Cholesterol circulates in the blood in low-density lipoproteins and these are taken into the cell by (low-density lipoprotein)LDL receptor, mediated endocytosis in clathrin-coated pits, and then hydrolyzed in lysosomes.

e) Cell secretion In response to low blood cholesterol, different cells of the body, mainly in the liver and intestines, start to synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (3- hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase, officially abbreviated HMGCR). This is then released into the blood.

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