How are primary (and general) elections funded? PRIMARIES – matching funds (for individual contributions – to encourage small donations) - voluntary (Clinton, Sanders did not take them for example) GENERAL ELECTION - Full public financing in general election if don’t raise private contributions and agree to a spending limit (voluntary –presidential candidates saying NO THANKS)

Citizens United Ruling 2010 First Amendment prohibits gov’t from restricting independent expenditures by corporations (including non profit ones) and unions AT ANY TIME, including just prior to an election. Can require disclosure but can’t limit free speech. First amendment issue…

Main “loopholes” today to get around contribution limits in campaigns * Independent expenditure groups (Supreme Court has generally supported these because aren’t made directly to a candidate so not “corrupting” in same way as a direct contribution) - 527 groups: independent groups not subject to contribution restrictions, so long as don’t explicitly endorse – Swift Boat Vets, Moveon.org –donations reported to FEC but amount = unlimited - 501s: independent groups that can also get unlimited donations, don’t even have to report donations to FEC so long as spend < 50 percent of their funds on political activities - Super PACS: can accept unlimited donations, can endorse ,so long as “just express their views” and don’t give their money to a candidate – in 2012 super PACs arose to support all pres. candidates

Electoral College Each state’s votes in the electoral college equal the number of its Reps in the U.S. House plus Senators in the U.S. Senate Versus National Vote

2012 election – why did Obama win Microtargeting – zero in on likely voters for your side, and hit them with particular messages designed to get them out to vote Expansion of coalition to bring in low turnout voters, especially young and Hispanic voters, especially in battleground states

2016 election Microtargeting (especially by Trump campaign) – of key states and districts within states (e.g. MI, WI, PA) Fake news (generally benefits Trump over Clinton) Lower turnout/enthusiasm among D voters for Clinton versus Obama Comey/email investigation

POLITICAL PARTIES – Pros and Cons

Positive functions of Parties Organize and contest elections Organize and run government Help voters decide (“Responsible Party Government – present distinct alternatives, can be held accountable for distinct policies)

Negative functions of Parties Confuse responsibility for public policy Deliberately sabotage attempts to govern by the other party Make voters more cynical (by negative advertising, attacks on politicians from other party, etc.)

FIVE PARTY ERAS 1. First Party System – 1790-1824 (Jeffersonian) 2. Jacksonians v. Whigs - 1828-1856 3. Two Republican Eras- 1860-1928 (Civil War and Reconstruction, 1860-1896 Industrial Republican 1896-1928)

4. New Deal Coalition 1932-1964 (Class based coalition)- Urban dwellers Labor unions Catholics, Jews Poor Southerners African Americans

5. 1968-Present: Southern Realignment and Divided Party Government Some say rise in DG suggests “dealignment” – people moving away from clear identification with one party or another (about 40 percent of voters call themselves Independents)

PARTIES – RISING OR DECLINING? Three ways to think of parties: Parties as organizations Parties in the minds of voters Parties in government

Evidence for decline (Fiorina 1980) – Compares parties to how they were before the Progressive Era, pre-1880s – mostly focuses on parties as organizations (and somewhat on parties in electorate) Progressive Reforms such as Australian ballot (allows split ticket voting), civil service reform, loss of patronage as tool of parties to secure support, campaign finance laws that limit parties’ fundraising. Loss of control over nominations with move to system of primaries for presidential and other elections. BUT also evidence for resurgence in parties as organizations) - starting in 1960s.. Rs then Ds Parties take on new roles (sponsoring issue conferences, mobilizing college students, direct mail to reach to voters and get donations from them recruit candidates, polling…) – still relevant, not dead.. (though somewhat eclipsed in campaign spending by independent groups)