To view animation on PC: hit F5 The Ice April 5, 1242 Strategic Context The Catholic and Orthodox Churches collide in the Baltic during Christianity’s spread from Palestine, hence the Papacy’s interest in crusading in the region. Encouraged by the Crusader capture of Constantinople in 1204, seat of the Greek Orthodox Church, and the devastation of Russia during the Mongol invasions of 1237, the Papacy organizes a crusade against Orthodox Novgorod. The crusade comprises an invasion by three separate factions each with its own goals and axis: Swedes in the north by sea, Danes and allies in the center, and the Teutonic Knights and allies in the south. Alexander Nevsky, leading an army comprised of contingents from various Russian states, neutralizes the two northernmost thrusts and raids into Crusader Livonia. Hermann von Buxhövden, Bishop of nearby Dorpat (Tartu), leads a mixed Crusader force against Nevsky who retreats back into Russia, turning to fight on the eastern edge of frozen Lake Peipus. To view animation on PC: hit F5 To view animation on Mac: hit ⌘ + enter Stakes + A Crusader victory would eliminate the only Russian field army, permitting a renewal of the crusade against Orthodox Novgorod. + A Russian victory would discourage further Crusader attacks against Novgorod and other Russian Orthodox states. By Jonathan Webb, 2012

The Ice, 1242 Strength Crusaders Well Russians Well Hermann von Buxhövden Alexander Nevsky 800 knights 1,600 cavalry 1,000 light infantry 3,400 light infantry By Jonathan Webb, 2012

Baltic c. 1260

The battlefield consists of a frozen lake with flat, snowy plains on either side. Crusaders (Hermann) Russians (Nevsky)

(Hermann von Buxhövden) The Teutonic Knights at the tip of the Crusader wedge cut deeply into the mass of Russian but do not notice the Russian infantry enclosing around them, nor Nevsky sending his cavalry to hit the Crusader flanks and rear. The weakened Danish knights flee back across the ice while Nevsky’s druzhina smash the left flank of the Livonian knights on the Crusader left, killing many before their poor periphery vision alerts them to the danger. As the Crusader knights begin their charge across the ice, their Estonian levies flee the battlefield when they see that the Russians are actually staying to fight. Meanwhile, the Crusader charge gains little momentum on the slippery ice and lacks the desired impact on the Russian center. On the Crusader right, Russian horse-archers advance, riding alongside the Danish knights and firing arrows into their unshielded right side. The unexpected horse-archers’ volley disrupts the Danish charge, preventing the knights from engaging the Russian infantry. The Livonian knights flee back across the ice as the Danish knights break and flee as well, leaving the Teutonic Knights surrounded and heavily outnumbered. The Teutonic Knights break out of the Russian envelopment but suffer heavy casualties in the process. Nevsky allows pursuit of the Crusaders only as far as the western shore. Hermann deploys his knights in a wedge formation with the elite contingent of Teutonic Knights at the tip, Livionian feudal knights on the left and Danish feudal knights on the right. The Crusader light infantry, Estonian levies, deploy to the rear. Hermann plans to break the Russian center with a heavy cavalry charge, perhaps killing Nevsky, scattering the Russian forces. Nevsky deploys his infantry, largely Novgorodian militia and other tribal levies, at the center. Nevsky deploys his druzhina, elite light cavalry, on the right, with horse-archers and other cavalry on the left. Crusaders (Hermann) Crusaders (Hermann von Buxhövden) 800 knights 1,000 light infantry Russians (Alexander Nevsky) 1,600 light cavalry 3,400 light infantry Symbol guide Crusaders Russians Knights Cavalry Levy infantry Horse-archers Levy infantry Archers Russians (Nevsky)

The Ice, 1242 Casualties & Aftermath Crusaders: Russians: 450 or 25% ≈200 or 4% Nevsky offered lenient peace terms which Hermann readily accepted: the Crusaders withdrew from all Novgorodian lands and each side released its prisoners. The Crusaders’ defeat did damage their prestige however, resulting in revolts against the Teutonic Knights and Danes in Prussia and Estonia respectively. Nevsky used the victory to consolidate Novgorodian rule in the Arctic north and Ural mountains. Nevsky then ceded to Mongol rule when they returned, collecting taxes on their behalf and crushing anti-Mongol revolts, including one initiated by his brother, Andre. For his efforts, the Mongols elevated Nevsky to Grand Prince of Russia in 1252, marking the foundations for future tsars. By Jonathan Webb, 2012

The Art of Battle: Animated Battle Maps http://www.theartofbattle.com By Jonathan Webb, 2012