1. Varna November 10, 1444 Strategic Context Vladislav III, the King of Poland and Hungary, encourages his general, John Hunyadi, to chase the Ottomans out of the Balkans after successive victories in 1443. The Ottoman Sultan, Murad II, and Vladislav agree to a ten-year truce, which Vladislav breaks in 1444 by declaring a Crusade and invading Bulgaria. Vladislav calls on the support of the Venetian fleet but it fails to rendezvous with the Crusader army at Varna. This allows Murad to cross the Bosphorus into the Balkans with a large army. Confronted by a superior force and with little chance of the fleet arriving to resupply or extract the Crusader army, Hunyadi convinces a council of war of the need for a bold attack. Stakes + An Ottoman victory would confirm its influence in the Balkans. + A Crusader victory would isolate the Ottomans from the Balkans and Europe. By Jonathan Webb, 2011 To view animation on PC: hit F5 To view animation on Mac: hit ⌘ + enter

2.  Crusaders  Well Varna, 1444 Strength  Ottomans  Well  Murad II  20,000  25,000  John Hunyadi By Jonathan Webb, 2011

3. Southeastern Europe c. 1444

4. Ottomans (Murad) Crusaders (Hunyadi) The battlefield consists of a cramped plain enclosed by Lake Varna to the west, Varna Bay and the Black Sea to the south, and the steep, wooded Frangen Hills to the east and northeast. Between Lake Varna and Varna Bay to the southwest is the town of Varna and swampy terrain, making the only ideal exfiltration route northwest. Varna Bay Frangen Hills Lake Varna

5. Crusaders (Hunyadi) Murad entrenches himself with the elite Janissaries in the center with levy infantry behind them. He deploys the sipahi (feudal cavalry) on each wing, the more numerous Rumelians on the left under Sahin Pasha and the Anatolians on the right under Karaca Bey. Murad deploys the azabs and akincis (irregular infantry and cavalry) in the Franzen Hills on the extreme left. Hunyadi deploys in a concave crescent, his flanks protected by Lake Varna on the left and wagons on the right. Hunyadi and King Vladislav command the center, Szilagyi the left, while Cesarini attempts to command the various bishops and nationalities on the right. Hunyadi keeps his Wallachian allies in reserve. Murad attacks with his strong cavalry wings. Davud Pasha sends his skirmishers against the Crusader right; Cesarini is unable to prevent the bishops on his left from rashly charging, leaving their left flank exposed to the approaching Ottoman cavalry. Meanwhile, the Ottoman right wing cavalry attack engage the Crusader left wing. The impetuous bishops on the Crusader right disperse the skirmishers but find themselves surrounded by the Ottoman cavalry, and so Cesarini must dash forward in support. Meanwhile, Hunyadi leads his center against the left flank of the Ottoman right wing, which is heavily engaged with the Crusader left. Sahin Pasha succeeds in outflanking and overpowering the Crusader right wing; the Ottomans pursue the routed Crusaders from the field. Only Cesarini is able to extricate his force and retreat to the safety of the wagons but he too is hotly pursued. However, Hunyadi succeeds in outflanking the Ottoman right wing and killing its commander, Karaca Bey. The Crusaders pursue the Ottoman right away from the field, leaving each army without a right wing. On the Crusader side, the Wallachians advance to occupy the center. Seeing their flank and rear are insecure, the Wallachians flee the battlefield and raid the Ottoman baggage train. Meanwhile, Hunyadi turns part of his force around to hit the right rear of the Ottoman left wing. Hunyadi leaves Vladislav with a small cavalry force at the center with specific instructions not to attack until the rest of the army can reform. Hunyadi/Vladislav Murad Sahin PashaKaraca Bey Szilagyi Cesarini Davud Pasha Hunyadi/Vladislav Sahin Pasha Cesarini Vladislav Hunyadi As Hunyadi defeats the Ottoman left wing, Vladislav ignores his instructions. His Polish knights do not wish to let Hunyadi have all the glory and urge him to enter the battle. Vladislav leads 500 cavalry in a suicidal attack against the Ottoman infantry before Hunyadi can reform with them. For a moment, Vladislav’s cavalry make progress, but they are quickly surrounded and massacred by the elite Janissaries. The Janissaries kill Vladislav and display his head on a pole for all the Crusaders to see. Seeing the graphic death of their king, the disheartened Crusaders panic and retreat to camp and then subsequently southwest. The Ottoman army is so damaged that it cannot immediately pursue. Crusaders (John Hunyadi) 20,000 Ottomans (Murad II) 25,000 Symbol guide OttomansCrusadersCavalry Light cavalryWagons Infantry Ottomans (Murad) Varna Bay Frangen Hills Lake Varna Landmarks

6. Varna, 1444 Casualties & Aftermath Ottomans:Crusaders: ≈8,000 or 32% ≈6,000 or 30% By Jonathan Webb, 2011 The Crusaders retreated during the night, allowing Murad to survey the wreckage of the battlefield and reportedly state: “May Allah never grant me another such victory!” Only after a full day could the Ottomans pursue, slaying another 7,000 Crusaders in their disastrous retreat through swampy terrain. News of the defeat reached the Crusading states slowly but definitively ended the crusade when it did. Hunyadi fought against German Emperor Frederick III in Austria before renewing hostilities with the Ottomans. Hunyadi lost the Battle of Kosovo in 1448 against Murad but successfully defended Belgrade in 1456 against Murad’s successor, Mehmed II.

7. The Art of Battle: Animated Battle Maps http://www.theartofbattle.com By Jonathan Webb, 2011