General Psychology

Scripture James 3:1 My brethren, let not many of you become teachers, knowing that we shall receive a stricter judgment.

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanation.

Humanistic Perspective By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists. Preview Question 6: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality? http://www.ship.edu Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Self-Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential. Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Getty Images http://www.ship.edu

Person-Centered Perspective Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings. Michael Rougier/ Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.

Assessing the Self In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept. Preview Question 7: How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self? All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.

Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve. Self-Esteem Trap Preview Question 8: How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?

The Trait Perspective An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality. Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive

Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits. Exploring Traits Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits. Allport & Odbert (1936), identified almost 18,000 words representing traits. Preview Question 9: How do psychologists use traits to describe personality? One way to condense the immense list of personality traits is through factor analysis, a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits.

Factor Analysis Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability.

Biology and Personality Personality dimensions are influenced by genes. Brain-imaging procedures show that extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. Genes also influence our temperament and behavioral style. Differences in children’s shyness and inhibition may be attributed to autonomic nervous system reactivity.

Assessing Traits Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. Preview Question 10: What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

MMPI The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to identify emotional disorders. The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.

MMPI Test Profile

The Big Five Factors Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment. Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion Preview Question 11: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

Endpoints

Questions about the Big Five Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development. 1. How stable are these traits? Fifty percent or so for each trait. 2. How heritable are they? These traits are common across cultures. 3. How about other cultures?

Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior. Preview Question 12: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

The Person-Situation Controversy Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average behavior remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.

The Person-Situation Controversy Traits are socially significant and influence our health, thinking, and performance (Gosling et al., 2000). John Langford Photography Samuel Gosling

Consistency of Expressive Style Expressive styles in speaking and gestures demonstrate trait consistency. Observers are able to judge people’s behavior and feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one particular case as little as 2 seconds.

Social-Cognitive Perspective Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context. Preview Question 13: In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality? Albert Bandura

Individuals & Environments Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact Different people choose different environments. The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions. Our personalities shape how we react to events. Anxious people react to situations differently than relaxed people. Our personalities shape situations. How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.

Behavior Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.

Personal Control Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us. External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Preview Question 14: What are the causes and consequences of personal control? Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.

Learned Helplessness When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.

Optimism vs. Pessimism An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or negative events. Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

Positive Psychology and Humanistic Psychology Positive psychology, such as humanistic psychology, attempts to foster human fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition, seeks positive subjective well-being, positive character, and positive social groups. Courtesy of Martin E.P. Seligman, PhD Director, Positive Psychology Center/ University of Pennsylvania Martin Seligman

Assessing Behavior in Situations Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in realistic and simulated situations because they find that it is the best way to predict the behavior of others in similar situations. Preview Question 15: What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behavior and beliefs?

Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective The social-cognitive perspective on personality sensitizes researchers to the effects of situations on and by individuals. It builds on learning and cognition research. Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics. Preview Question 16: What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?

Exploring the Self Research on the self has a long history because the self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a critical part of our personality. Research focuses on the different selves we possess. Some we dream and others we dread. Research studies how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).

Benefits of Self-Esteem Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy self-image (self-esteem). The following are two reasons why low self-esteem results in personal problems. When self-esteem is deflated, we view ourselves and others critically. Low self-esteem reflects reality, our failure in meeting challenges, or surmounting difficulties. Preview Question 17: Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?

Culture & Self-Esteem People maintain their self-esteem even with a low status by valuing things they achieve and comparing themselves to people with similar positions.

Self-Serving Bias We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.

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PICTURE ONE Carefree Playful Cheerful                          You love a free and spontaneous life. And you attempt to enjoy it to the fullest, in accordance with the motto: "You only live once." You are very curious and open about everything new; you thrive on change. Nothing is worse than when you feel tied down. You experience your environment as being versatile and always good for a surprise.

PICTURE TWO Independent Unconventional Unfettered You demand a free and unattached life for yourself that allows you to determine your own course. You have an artistic bent in your work or leisure activities. Your urge for freedom sometimes causes you to do exactly the opposite of what expected of you. Your lifestyle is highly individualistic. You would never blindly imitate what is "in"; on the contrary, you seek to live according to your own ideas and convictions, even if this means swimming against the tide.

PICTURE THREE Introspective Sensitive Reflective                           You come to grips more frequently and thoroughly with yourself and your environment than do most people. You detest superficiality; you'd rather be alone than have to suffer through small talk. But your relationships with your friends are highly intensive, which gives you the inner tranquility and harmony that you need in order to feel good. You do not mind being alone for extended periods of time; you rarely become bored.

PICTURE FOUR Down to Earth Well-Balanced Harmonious You value a natural style and love that which is uncomplicated. People admire you because you have both feet planted firmly on the ground and they can depend on you. You give those who are close to you security and space. You are perceived as being warm and human. You reject everything that is garish and trite. You tend to be skeptical toward the whims of fashion trends. For you, clothing has to be practical and unobtrusively elegant.

PICTURE FIVE Professional Pragmatic Self-Assured You take charge of your life, and place less faith in your luck and more in your own deeds. You solve problems in a practical, uncomplicated manner. You take a realistic view of the things in your daily life and tackle them without wavering. You are given a great deal of responsibility at work, because people know that you can be depended upon. Your pronounced strength of will projects your self-assurance to others. You are never fully satisfied until you have accomplished your ideas.

PICTURE SIX Peaceful Discreet Non-Aggressive You are easy-going yet discreet. You make friends effortlessly, yet enjoy your privacy and independence. You like to get away from it all and be alone from time to time to contemplate the meaning of life and enjoy yourself. You need space, so you escape to beautiful hideaways, but you are not a loner. You are at peace with yourself and the world, and you appreciate life and what this world has to offer.

PICTURE SEVEN Analytical Trustworthy Self-Assured Your momentary sensitivity represents that which is of high quality and durable. Consequently, you like to surround yourself with little "gems," which you discover wherever they are overlooked by others. Thus, culture plays a special role in your life. You have found your own personal style, which is elegant and exclusive, free from the whims of fashion. Your ideal, upon which you base your life, is cultured pleasure. You value a certain level of culture on the part of the people with whom you associate.

PICTURE EIGHT Romantic Dreamy Emotional You are a very sensitive person. You refuse to view things only from a sober, rational standpoint. What your feelings tell you is just as important to you. In fact, you feel it is important to have dreams in life, too. You reject people who scorn romanticism and are guided only by rationality. You refuse to let anything confine the rich variety of your moods and emotions.

PICTURE NINE Dynamic Active Extroverted You are quite willing to accept certain risks and to make a strong committment in exchange for interesting and varied work. Routine, in contrast, tends to have a paralyzing effect on you. What you like most is to be able to play an active role in events. In doing so, your initiative is highly pronounced.