Transportation and “Local” Air Pollution Class 2 ECI 163 – 9/27/16

Severe air pollution in urban areas is an old problem Source: David Parrish, UC Boulder, Aug 2014, presented at CARB) China Central Television (CCTV) building Beijing January 2013 Air pollution in LA in mid-20 th century was likely worst in world … but now pollution in other modern cities is equally bad Los Angeles Civic Center January 1948 (Haze is caused by particulate matter, PM)

China Central Television (CCTV) building Beijing January 2013 Los Angeles Civic Center January hour average PM 10 concentrations exceeded 600 µg/m 3 in Los Angeles (National Academy of Engineering Report, 2007) Peak PM 10 concentrations exceeded 1150 µg/m 3 in Beijing (Zheng et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. Disc., 2014)

Los Angeles Civic Center January 1948 Tremendous progress has been made! Ozone (O 3 ) exceeded 600 ppbv in Los Angeles (> 350 ppbv 8-hour average) 1.Severe air pollution in urban areas is an old problem O 3 seldom if ever has exceeded 200 ppbv in Beijing

What control efforts led to AQ improvement in LA? Emissions from all sources addressed! -Open burning banned -Industrial emissions controlled -Power plant emissions controlled or moved elsewhere -Motor vehicle emissions reduced dramatically

AQ Problems Are Not the Same Everywhere Beijing has particulate matter problem LA has ozone problem 6

Is Air Pollution Solved in US? What More Needs to be Done? Continued Progress is Difficult: Many critical processes relating to pollution are not well understood. Often, pollution’s adverse effects are felt by people who had no role in emitting it. Trucks are especially challenging 7

1940s Los Angeles- An Unhealthy Problem County air pollution control districts established 2.8 million vehicles 8

9 Deadly 1952 Great London Fog Source: Wilkins, 1954, taken from:

1950s: Photochemical smog described by Prof. Arie Haagen-Smit 4.5 million vehicles 10

California’s AQ Leadership 1947  Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District created First legislation in world controlling vehicle emissions   Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board created First req’t for emission control technology (positive crank case ventilation)   California Air Resources Board created Low-Emission Vehicle Program enacted (LEV I plus ZEV)   Low-Emission Vehicle Program revised (LEV II) Off-road diesel emission regulations   On-road diesel truck retrofit req’ts LEV III plus ZEV 

US AQ Regulatory History 1960s: initial automotive emissions control 1970/1977: U. S. Clean Air Act launches strong national AQ regulations (vehicles and stationary sources) 1980s: No major new AQ laws or regulations 1990s: Tightened light and heavy duty stds 2000s: Focus on diesel engines Today: Air is cleaner everywhere in US; gasoline and diesel vehicles emit a fraction as much pollution as in the 1960s (and still getting cleaner); Unhealthy Ozone and PM persists in LA, San Joaquin Valley and a few other locations in US Local air pollution is very different from climate change

Environmental Protection Agency State Agency Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP (state implement- ation plan) Regulatory Authority (US) 13

Environmental Protection Agency California Air Resources Board Local APCDs Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP AQMPs Regulatory Authority (CA) 14

Pollution Depends on Atmospheric Conditions. 15

How to Reduce Air Pollution What is regulated? – criteria pollutants How to determine what is unacceptable? – ambient standards Basis for setting standards? – Human health, but how to determine what is acceptable? How is pollution measured? – Monitors (but where should they be located?) Who is responsible? – large emitters, or all emitters, or …? – Actual operator/owner of source? or supplier of equipment/facility? Should all equipment/cars be required to meet same standard? – Or should it be based on where they are used and who and how many people are affected? Better approach to reduce air pollution (using economic theory)? 16

EPA Criteria Air Pollutants Carbon Monoxide (CO) Nitrogen Oxides (NO x ) Ozone (O 3 ) Oxides of Sulfur (SO x ) Fine Particulates (PM 10, PM 2.5 ) Lead (Pb) Later in course we address greenhouse gases (CO 2, N 2 O, CH 3, etc) 17

National Ambient Air Quality Standards Ozone8 hour average ppm 1 hour average0.12 ppm [3-year avg of annual 4th highest daily max 8-hour levels] CO1 hour average 35 ppm 8 hour average 9 ppm PM 2.5 Annual daily mean 15  g/m 3 [3-year average] 24 hour average 35  g/m 3 [3-year average of 98th% levels] Sulfur DioxideAnnual daily mean 0.03 ppm 24 hour average 0.14 ppm 1 hour average75 ppb Nitrogen DioxideAnnual average ppm LeadQuarterly average 1.5  g/m 3 18

Measurement and Determination is Complicated! “The Clean Air Act defines a nonattainment area as the area that is violating the national ambient air quality standard OR a nearby area that is contributing to a violation of the standards. For instance, the PM 2.5 standards are based on averaging air quality measurements both annually and on a 24 hour basis. The annual standard for PM 2.5 is met whenever the 3 year average of the annual mean PM 2.5 concentrations for designated monitoring sites in an area is less than or equal to 15.0 µg/m 3. The 24 hour standard for PM 2.5 is met whenever the 3 year average of the annual 98th percentile of values at designated monitoring sites in an area is less than or equal to 35 µg/m 3.” 19

Transport is Principal Source of CO, NOx, and VOCs in Metropolitan Areas 20 Sources: US EPA,

Non-Attainment and State Implementation Plans Regions are monitored for levels of criteria air pollutants. If pollutants exceed the NAAQS threshold, the region is considered to be in non-attainment. States with non-attainment areas must submit a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to the EPA describing how NAAQS will be met within a reasonable time period. State Environmental authorities are then responsible for complying with the SIP and ensuring that attainment goals will be met. 21

LA used to be one of most polluted cities in world, but now many other cities are far more polluted 22 Source: WHO, 2016

Carbon Monoxide Colorless, odorless gas Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons High affinity for hemoglobin (210 times that of oxygen) – Interferes with oxygen transfer – More threatening at high altitudes Causes drowsiness, headaches, motor impairment Complicates heart disease Fatal at high concentrations Primarily a hot spot problem (disperses well) – Tracks vehicle activity 23

US Sources of Carbon Monoxide U.S. EPA, 2014 ( 24 Anthropogenic CO emissions in the U.S. by source category,

11 PM - midnight 11 AM - noon 7 AM - 8 AM Downtown Atlanta Marietta I KM 45 KM GA-400 I-575 Bachman and Guensler, 1996 CO Emissions Very Localized and Dissipate Quickly (North Atlanta) 5-6 PM 25

CO Nonattainment Areas (1999) EPA Designation 08/99 Source: USEPA,

27 CO Nonattainment Areas (2010)

Carbon Monoxide Solved (in US)! Source: EPA,

Oxides of Nitrogen NO X includes NO, NO 2, NO 3, etc. NO 2 - brownish color gas with pungent odor – Visible in long plumes and brown smog NO X from combustion – Approximately 90% emitted as Nitric Oxide (NO) – 10% as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) – NO oxidizes to NO 2 within a few hours Directly damages cells in respiratory tract Converts to nitric acid (acid rain component) Major Ozone Precursor 29

30 US Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen Anthropogenic NOx emissions in the U.S. by source category, U.S. EPA, 2016 (

31 US Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen Proportions of nonpoint and point sources of N in selected National Water-Quality Assessment Program watersheds USGS, 2016 (

Source: Larry Greene, Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District 2007 Sacramento Region Daily NOx Emissions On-Road Mobile – 57% Other Mobile – 32% Stationary – 9% 35% Total Daily NOx: 167 Tons/Day 11% 6% 32

NOx Emissions, California, Total NOx (tpd) On-Road Mobile NOx (LD/HD split) (tpd) Off-Road Mobile NOx (tpd) Percent Mobile Percent On-Road Mobile Statewide (135/522)50179%45% South Coast (50/152)15484%48% Bay Area25690 (20/70)11982%35% CARB, 2016)

NO 2 Nonattainment Areas (none) EPA Designation 08/99 Source: USEPA,

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Organic compounds that contribute to ozone formation Also known as: ROG, ROC, NMHC, HC Excludes certain “exempt” compounds – Perchloroethylene and various CFCs – Methane, metallic carbides, etc. Natural sources can account for more than 50% of total daily VOC emissions (varies by area) – e.g. forest terpenes, broad-leaf isoprene, etc. Some VOCs are toxic air contaminants – e.g. benzene, toluene, 1-3 butadiene, acetaldehyde 35

36

NOx + VOC = Ozone Formed by complex photochemical reactions (VOCs, NO X, heat, and sunlight) Colorless and odorless at low concentrations Strong lung, throat, and eye irritant Increased respiratory problems, asthma, hospitalization, and contribution to heart disease – Contributes to 80,000 premature deaths/year in CA Carbon-carbon double-bond breaker – Powerful disinfectant – Plant/materials damage (>$300 million/year in CA) 37

Good Ozone and Bad Ozone Different Altitudes, Different Effects 38

Ozone Formation: The “Quick” Version 39

40 Ozone Formation is Nonlinear

41 Ozone Formation Can be VOC or NOx Limited

Ozone Nonattainment Areas (2010) Source: USEPA,

Projected Ozone Nonattainment Areas Source: USEPA, Proposed revisions to Federal rules will lower Ozone limits from 75 to 70 ppb.

Low-level Ozone is Falling Almost Everywhere in US, Including LA Area (“South Coast”) 44

45 LA and SJ Valley Have the Worst O 3 Pollution in US Clean Cars in California (2010), Environment California & Environment California Research & Policy Center

46 California VMT vs Emissions Clean Cars in California (2010), Environment California & Environment California Research & Policy Center

Ozone is Strongly Linked to Asthma 47

Ozone Also Harms Plants 48

Particulate Matter Chemical and particle size composition depends upon source characteristics Primary PM – Directly emitted into atmosphere Secondary PM – Forms from reaction of gases/liquids Defined in terms of aerodynamic diameter – PM 2.5 all particles less than 2.5 microns – PM 10 all particles less than 10 microns 1/7 the diameter of a human hair – “Ultrafine” PM: Less than 1 micron PM has direct health concerns (short and long term exposure) and is a major cause of reduced visibility 49

What is PM? Elemental Carbon (EC) – Soot or “Black Carbon” Organic Carbon (OC) – Hydrocarbon molecules that condense onto a solid core Sulfate – Diesel Byproduct, usually formed from SO 2 in exhaust Metals – Trace elements from combustion and industrial activity Natural PM – Dust from wind erosion, condensed sea salt Liquids – Droplets of moisture with ions dissolved in them, often acidic if combustion byproduct Pollen Other stuff – e.g. ammonium nitrate 50

PM 10 PM 10 is fine enough to enter the lungs and accumulate – Can transport toxic materials on particle surfaces Often formed by accumulation of smaller particles Lots of natural sources Typically precipitates out of atmosphere in hours to days 51

PM 2.5 Largely from combustion byproducts (e.g. exhaust sulfates and nitrates) Regional transport is an issue (days to weeks) Seasonal variability More closely associated with adverse health effects – Decreased lung function, hospital and emergency room visits, asthma, bronchitis, cardiac arrhythmia, heart attack, and premature death Combustion toxics are a particular health concern – Diesel particulate matter and diesel gaseous exhaust 52

US Sources of PM 2.5 Direct Sources EPA,

Annual PM 2.5 Concentration Trend: Modest Improvement 54 Source: EPA, 2016 (

PM 2.5 Nonattainment Areas Source: USEPA ( 55

Lead – Not a Significant Air Pollutant Anymore Toxic heavy metal Enters the lungs and bloodstream (inhalation/ingestion) – Bioaccumulates in blood, bones and soft tissue Damages the brain and nervous system – Significant problem for children Tetraethyl lead was used in gasoline as an anti-knock compound (improved engine performance/design) – Carried on combustion particulate – Still used in aviation gasoline Regulated because it fouled catalytic converters and interfered with the VOC and NO X emissions control Domestic automobile sources eliminated (unleaded gas) 56

Lead Nonattainment Areas Source: USEPA ( 57

Source: USEPA, 1994 Lead Concentration Trends 58

Health Effects of Air Pollution in CA 59

AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLANNING 60

FederalState (California)Local/Regional Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) California Air Resources Board (CARB) Local Air Districts [e.g. Air Quality Management Districts (AQMDs)] Air Quality Management Planning Responsibility is spread through different levels of government 61

California Air Basins and Control Districts 62 Red outlines: Physical air basins Shading: Local air districts

Federal Level Sets national air pollutant concentration standards – Areas not meeting standards are in “non-attainment” States with non-attainment areas mandated to create a State Implementation Plan (SIP) to get areas into attainment – Prepared by states and subject to EPA approval 63

State/Local Government State and local gov’ts adopt control measures to attain standards Differences in what emission sources they handle – Local: Mainly point sources (factories/plants) – State: Add non-point sources (vehicle emissions standards, fuel standards, smog checks) – Federal: Add interstate non-point sources (cargo trucks, planes, trains) 64

Environmental Protection Agency State Agency Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP (state implement- ation plan) Regulatory Authority (US, except CA) 65

Environmental Protection Agency California Air Resources Board Local APCDs Stationary Sources Area Sources Indirect Sources Mobile Sources SIP AQMPs Regulatory Authority—Calif is unique 66