Earth’s Systems and Resources Chapter 8

The Earth’s resources were determined when the planet formed.

Core- the innermost zone of the planet made of nickel and iron. Mantle- above the core containing magma Crust- the outermost layer of the planet. The Earth’s Layers

Asthenosphere- the outer part of the mantle, composed of semi-molten rock. Lithosphere- the brittle outermost layer of the planet that is approximately 100 km thick. The Crust and Mantle

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The Earth is very hot at the center. This heat causes plumes of hot magma to well upward from the mantle. Hotspots- places where molten material from the mantle reach the lithosphere. Convection and Hot Spots

Plate tectonics- the theory that states that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion. Theory of Plate Tectonics

Volcano- is a rupture in the crust that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Volcanoes can form at a hot spot. subduction zones and rift valleys.rupturecrustlavavolcanic ashgasesmagma chamber Consequences of Plate Movement

Divergent plate boundaries- when plates move apart from one another. Convergent plate boundaries- when plates move toward one another and collide. Transform fault boundaries- then plates move sideways past each other. Types of Plate Boundaries

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Faults- a fracture in rock across which there is movement. Earthquakes- occur when the rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault. Faults and Earthquakes

Fault zone- large expanses of rock where movement has occurred. Epicenter- the exact point on the surface of Earth directly above the location where the rock ruptures. Richter scale- a measure of the largest ground movement that occurs during an earthquake. The scale increases by a factor of 10, so an earthquake of 7 is 10 times greater than an earthquake of 6. Faults and Earthquakes

Rock cycle- the constant formation and destruction of rock. The Rock Cycle

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in the earth’s crust vary in their abundance and distribution. A very slow chemical cycle recycles three types of rock found in the earth’s crust:  Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone).  Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite).  Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).

Fig. 15-8, p. 343 Erosion Transportation Weathering Deposition Igneous rock Granite, pumice, basalt Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone Heat, pressure Cooling Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Melting Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite

Igneous rocks- rocks that form directly from magma.  Intrusive igneous- form from within Earth as magma cools.  Extrusive igneous- from when magma cools above Earth. (ex. A volcano that ejects magma out will form this) Sedimentary rocks- form when sediment such as mud, sands, or gravels are compressed by overlying sediments. Metamorphic rocks- form when sedimentary, igneous or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures. The Rock Cycle

Weathering- when rocks are exposed to air, water, certain chemicals or biological agents that degrade the rock.  Physical weathering- the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals. Weathering and Erosion

Chemical weathering- the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions. Weathering and Erosion

Erosion- the physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem. Wind, water, ice transport and living organisms can erode materials. Deposition- the accumulation or depositing of eroded material such as sediment, rock fragments or soil. Erosion

Parent Material- the rock material from which soil is derived. The Formation of Soil

21 ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST 21

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF NONRENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES The U.S. Geological Survey classifies mineral resources into four major categories:  Identified: known location, quantity, and quality or existence known based on direct evidence and measurements.  Undiscovered: potential supplies that are assumed to exist.  Reserves: identified resources that can be extracted profitably.  Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified as reserves

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF NONRENEWABLE MINERAL RESOURCES Examples are fossil fuels (coal, oil), metallic minerals (copper, iron), and nonmetallic minerals (sand, gravel). Figure 15-7

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCES Minerals are removed through a variety of methods that vary widely in their costs, safety factors, and levels of environmental harm. A variety of methods are used based on mineral depth.  Surface mining: removing minerals that are close to Earth’s surface. Shallow deposits are removed.  Subsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.

MINING REGULATIONS The General Mining Act of 1872 is a United States federal law that authorizes and governs prospecting and mining for economic minerals, such as gold, platinum, and silver, on federal public lands. This law, approved on May 10, 1872, codified the informal system of acquiring and protecting mining claims on public land, formed by prospectors in California and Nevada from the late 1840s through the 1860s, such as during the California Gold Rush.United States federal law prospectingminingmineralspublic landCalifornia Gold Rush

VIDEO CLIP:DISCOVERY EDUCATION 29-E9FE-4B5D-823E-D53773C23292http://app.discoveryeducation.com/player/view/assetGuid/136DCF 29-E9FE-4B5D-823E-D53773C23292

TYPES OF MINING: SURFACE 27

PLACER MINING Placer mining- looking for metals and stones in river sediments.

OPEN-PIT MINING Open pit mining- the creation of a large pit or hole in the ground that is visible from the surface. Machines dig holes and remove ores, sand, gravel, and stone. Toxic groundwater can accumulate at the bottom. Figure 15-11

AREA STRIP MINING Strip mining- removing strips of soil and rock to expose ore. Earth movers strips away overburden, and giant shovels removes mineral deposit. Often leaves highly erodible hills of rubble called spoil banks. Figure 15-12

CONTOUR STRIP MINING Used on hilly or mountainous terrain. Unless the land is restored, a wall of dirt is left in front of a highly erodible bank called a highwall. Figure 15-13

MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL Mountain top removal- removing the entire top of a mountain with explosives. Often used to expose coal. The resulting waste rock and dirt are dumped into the streams and valleys below. Figure 15-14

33 TYPES OF MINING Subsurface mining- mining for resources that are 100 m below Earth’s surface. 33

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING Acid Mine Drainage Erosion and Sedimentation Cyanide & Other Toxic Releases Dust Emissions Habitat Modification Surface and Groundwater Contamination

COAL MINING AFFECTS THE ENVIRONMENT Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff  Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid  Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage

COAL MINING HARMS HUMAN HEALTH Subsurface mining is harmful to human health  Mine shaft collapses  Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease Costs to repair damages of mining are very high  These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe  Looser of restrictions in 2002 allowed companies to dump rock and soil into valleys, regardless of the consequences

NOW WHAT DO WE DO WITH IT? Once the ore is mined and hauled to the surface, it must be processed  Tailings are what is left behind once the valuable portion of the ore is removed.  Gangue is the commercially worthless minerals associated with a valuable find.

GOLD PROCESSING Gold is treated with a Cyanide compound which produces a Gold- Cyanide complex which is soluble  Problem: Hydrogen Cyanide gas is toxic

Fig , p. 344 Natural Capital Degradation Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources Steps Environmental effects Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat Exploration, extraction Processing Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat Transportation, purification, manufacturing Use Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding

MINING WASTE Subsidence is a phenomenon where the surface collapses directly above a subsurface mine. Spoils are the unwanted rock and other waste left over after mining either on the surface or subsurface Tailings are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the worthless fraction of an ore.

WHAT TO DO WITH THE WASTE Incorporate the mine waste into  Concrete for buildings  Backfill for roads  Extraction of other minerals

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCES The extraction, processing, and use of mineral resources has a large environmental impact. Figure 15-9

SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES The future supply of a resource depends on its affordable supply and how rapidly that supply is used. A rising price for a scarce mineral resource can increase supplies and encourage more efficient use.

SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES Depletion curves for a renewable resource using three sets of assumptions.  Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs. New technologies can increase the mining of low-grade ores at affordable prices, but harmful environmental effects can limit this approach. Most minerals in seawater and on the deep ocean floor cost too much to extract, and there are squabbles over who owns them. Figure 15-16

GETTING MORE MINERALS FROM THE OCEAN Hydrothermal deposits form when mineral-rich superheated water shoots out of vents in solidified magma on the ocean floor. Figure 15-17

USING MINERAL RESOURCES MORE SUSTAINABLY Scientists and engineers are developing new types of materials as substitutes for many metals. Recycling valuable and scarce metals saves money and has a lower environmental impact then mining and extracting them from their ores.

Fig , p. 351 Solutions Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals Do not waste mineral resources. Recycle and reuse 60–80% of mineral resources. Include the harmful environmental costs of mining and processing minerals in the prices of items (full-cost pricing). Reduce subsidies for mining mineral resources. Increase subsidies for recycling, reuse, and finding less environmentally harmful substitutes. Redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources and to produce less pollution and waste. Have the mineral-based wastes of one manufacturing process become the raw materials for other processes. Sell services instead of things. Slow population growth.

CONTROLS Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: regulates active coal mines and reclaims abandoned mines  Standards of Performance.  Permitting.  Bonding.  Inspection and Enforcement.  Land Restrictions.

SMCRA SMCRA and its implementing regulations set environmental standards that mines must follow while operating, and achieve when reclaiming mined land.

REQUIREMENTS  SMCRA requires that companies obtain permits before conducting surface mining. Permit applications must describe what the premining environmental conditions and land use are, what the proposed mining and reclamation will be, how the mine will meet the SMCRA performance standards, and how the land will be used after reclamation is complete. This information is intended to help the government determine whether to allow the mine and set requirements in the permit that will protect the environment.  Bonding. SMCRA requires that mining companies post a bond sufficient to cover the cost of reclaiming the site. This is meant to ensure that the mining site will be reclaimed even if the company goes out of business or fails to clean up the land for some other reason. The bond is not released until the mining site has been fully reclaimed and the government has (after five years in the East and ten years in the West) found the that the reclamation was successful.  Inspection and Enforcement. SMCRA gives government regulators the authority to inspect mining operations, and to punish companies that violate SMCRA or an equivalent state statute. Inspectors can issue "notices of violation," which require operators to correct problems within a certain amount of time; levy fines; or order that mining cease.  Land Restrictions. SMCRA prohibits surface mining altogether on certain lands, such as in National Parks and wilderness areas. It also allows citizens to challenge proposed surface mining operations on the ground that they will cause too much environmental harm.

CASE STUDY: THE ECOINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial revolution taking place over the next 50 years. The goal is to redesign industrial manufacturing processes to mimic how nature deals with wastes.  Industries can interact in complex resource exchange webs in which wastes from manufacturer become raw materials for another.

CASE STUDY: THE ECOINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Figure 15-19