Chapter 3 Political Participation This chapter will examine prominent modes of actual political behavior

What is Political Participation? The political actions of individuals and groups. The basic objective of most political participation is to influence the actions of those in power. Political participation differs from person to person. At one extreme, we find people who engage with politics and political activities to varying degrees. At the other extreme, there are people who have no interest in politics and do not engage at all.

Individual Political Actions Foot-soldiers, Extremists, Leaders Conventional and Unconventional Categories: Voting, Campaigning, Personal Contacts, Communal Activities Demonstrations, Protests, Riots

Foot-soldiers Those activists who do, “The basic work of Politics.” They link the government, the political leadership and the masses. Campaign, raise money, communicate with the media, work in local offices, vote.

Extremists Outsiders who are willing to engage in extensive political action in pursuit of their vision of the ideal world. Relativism: What is Extreme? Actions located on the periphery of a political system, Challenging conventional norms.

Extremist Types Fringe Parties who have specific policy agendas related to issues such as the environment, nationalism, immigration or religion. (Earth First, Golden Dawn, English Defence League) Revolutionaries: Desire to overthrow the existing system (Mao Zedong, Vladimir Lenin, Ayatollah Khomeini, Nelson Mandela) Terrorists: Those who attempt t change or depart from the existing political order or through violent means) (FARC, al-Qaeda, IRA)

Political Participation Studies Who participates and to what degree? Less than 5% of Americans engage in high levels of political activity. There are large differences in voting patterns across the world ranging from nearly 100% to less than 30%.

In some countries where voter participation is very, high such as Cuba and N. Korea, voting is primarily a symbolic act that is used to express support for the existing political leadership. In some countries candidates for office must be approved by the central government. There are some countries where the top leadership or military invalidate the elections if they do not approve of the election results.

In democratic countries, most individuals use the conventional modes of voting and contacting public officials as the key means of achieving political objectives. In less-democratic countries non-governmental channels are largely used and unconventional modes of political behavior are the major instruments of achieving political objectives.

Group Political Actions A group can be defined as an aggregation (gathering) of individuals who interact in order to pursue a common interest. The most significant factor that distinguishes a political group from other groups is that the group pursues a political objective. A distinction is also made between political interest groups and political parties. A political party is a certain type of political group, which seeks not merely to influence political decisions but also to place its members in the actual roles of government, such as chief executives and legislators.

Why do people join political groups? The most common reason is that individual actions will not make any difference. The group is more capable than the individual to exercise influence. Most individuals have a minimal effect on political decisions and actions. Even in democracies, casting a vote is the primary political act for most people. But if huge numbers of votes are cast, one individual’s vote is politically insignificant. Groups are often the major mechanism by which individuals are linked to the political system.

Political Interest Groups Political interest groups try to influence the allocation of public values. But in order to do this a variety of strategies can be employed. Interest group activities: Political action, provision of material resources, exchange of information, cooperation.

1 Political action : is the most direct way or method to achieve political objectives. Voting, Campaigning, personal contacts, communal activities 2 Provision of material resources: Political interest groups can provide goods or services to political actors. Provision of goods and services will influence decision makers to work for the benefit of the group, legally or illegally Each political system has its own rules about the methods and amounts of money or goods that can be given to political actors. In some political systems such as United States large amounts of money are given to political actors by interest groups.

3 Exchange of Information: Provision of data and information to political actors The interest group may have specialized information the political system would not obtain from other sources. 4 Cooperation: between the government and interest groups Government actors understand that successful policy implementation is more likely when they develop policies that are acceptable to the affected interest groups

Constraints on Group Behavior 1) Political resources: are not equally available for all groups Production, social status, legality, special knowledge of skills, ability to mobilize people, capacity for social disruption, and access to decision-makers. 2) Objectives: The probability of success is linked to the nature of the group’s objective An interest group has particular advantages when; → its objective is quite similar to existing policy, and → the political system has the capacity to perform this objective.

3) Political Environment: The demands that groups can make and the actions in which they can engage in depend on the boundaries of acceptable political action. In democratic systems interest groups have extensive rights to make political demands and engage in political action. In authoritarian political systems the government does not tolerate interest group activities that are in opposition to the leadership..

Types of Interest Groups 1-Associational interest groups: (labor unions, environmental movement, women’s groups, business associations, chambers of commerce, religious associations, ethnic associations, teachers association, students association, etc.) Represents a group of people on the basis of formal membership. Is formed explicitly to represent the interests of a particular group. Has specific organizational procedures for formulating interests an demands. Is active in representing the interests of their members. Its tactics and goals are often recognized as legitimate in society.

2- Institutional Interest Groups: (legislative blocs, ideological similar bureaucrats, clerical groups, military officers. Is formed to achieve goals other than affecting the political system. Has other political or social functions in addition to interest expression. Expresses its own interests or represents the interests of other groups in society.

3) Non-associational interest groups: (ethnic groups, regional groups, religious groups, occupational groups) Is an unstable gathering of individuals who are not explicitly associated with a permanent organizational entity but who share some common interests. -Based on irregular activities. Is distinct from anomic groups in the sense that it is based on common interests of ethnicity, region, religion, occupation or kinship. -Difficult to organize.

4) Anomic interest Groups Short-lived, spontaneous gathering of people. Formed suddenly when numerous individuals respond similarly to frustration and disappointment. May use violence in its actions, but not necessarily. Emerges where organized groups are absent. Emerges with little or no planning.

Political Parties A party group attempts to capture political power directly by placing its members in governmental office.. Functions of parties: 1)Brokers of ideas 2)Political socialization, 3)Linking individuals to the political system 4) Recruiting political activists 5) Coordinating governmental operations, 6) Serving as sources of opposition:

Ideological and Pragmatic Ideological Parties aim to implement policies to achieve dramatic changes in the socio-political order. For example, egalitarianism, ethnic solidarity, religious law. Pragmatic parties have more flexible goals directed toward moderate policy change. To achieve electoral success, pragmatic parties may shift their ideological and political position

Party Functions 1) Brokers of ideas: Parties harmonize many demands into a few packages of clear alternatives. 2) Facilitating Political Socialization: Individuals develop a clear party identification.  leftist, liberal, nationalist, conservative, fascist, etc  -Even if an individual does not have a strong party identification, political parties can be an important source of political knowledge.

3) Linking individuals to the political system. If the party gains political power, it can attempt to implement the demands of the individuals who support the party. 4) Mobilizing and recruiting political activists: In many political systems, involvement with a political party is the primary mechanism through which individuals become political activists. Political parties select the candidates for political positions or have the power to place individuals in positions within the political system. In non-democratic countries the ruling political party gives most or all individuals political positions in key executive and legislative posts.

5) Coordinating governmental operations: - The party can encourage its members to work together to achieve shared policy goals. It can establish an internal hierarchy, where party leaders control the actions of its members. 6) Serving as a source of opposition: In democratic countries where the political system has more than one party, the parties which are not in political power can serve as explicit and organized sources of opposition. In the UK, the leaders of the opposition receive salaries to serve as a “shadow government.” There is a “shadow prime minister”, a “shadow minister of defense” and so on.

Key Concepts Associational Interest Group Corporatism Extremist Activist Foot-soldiers Group Ideological Party Interest Group Political Activist Political Environment Political Participation Political Party Political resources Pragmatic Party