1 מקורות החשיבה המדעית/מתימטית (218325 ) אורי לירון 04-825-4515 שיעור ראשון – 7.11.06 חידות, מֶטָה-חידות, תהיות, וסתם שאלות מעצבנות.

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1 מקורות החשיבה המדעית/מתימטית ( ) אורי לירון שיעור ראשון – חידות, מֶטָה-חידות, תהיות, וסתם שאלות מעצבנות

2 מטלה 1: מחבט וכדור מחבט וכדור עולים ביחד 110 ש"ח. המחבט עולה 100 ש"ח יותר מהכדור. כמה עולה הכדור?

3 מטלה 2: בחירת קלפים מישהו מציג לפניך ארבעה קלפים. לכל קלף יש אות (עברית או אנגלית) בצידו האחד ומספר בצידו השני. איזה קלפים יש להפוך כדי לקבוע בודאות אם כל ארבעת הקלפים מקיימים את הכלל, או שיש כאלו המפירים אותו? א B47 אם לקלף יש אות עברית בצד אחד, אז בצדו האחר יש מספר זוגי. אבל יש לך ספקות לגבי מהימנות הטענה. ואסון ניסוי הקלפים המציג מודיע לך שכל ארבעת הקלפים מקיימים את הכלל הבא:

4 בירה P קולה not-P 23 Q 15 not-Q אם P אז Q: אם בצד אחד יש אות עברית (P), אז בצד שני יש מספר זוגי (Q). או: אם את/ה שותה בירה (P), אז את/ה מעל גיל 18 (Q). ואסון ניסוי הקלפים כאשר מישהו שותה בירה וגילו קטן מ- 18; מתי הפסוק "אם P אז Q" אינו נכון? כלומר, כאשר P נכון ו- Q אינו נכון; כלומר, כאשר מתקיים:P ו- not-Q.

5 מטלה 3: שמות וכתובות המשימה – ללמוד בעל פה שלוש כתובות: גד דודגר ברחוב אברהם ברוך גד זאבגר ברחובברוך אברהם זאב הראלגר ברחוב גד הראל בגרסה אנגלית: Charlie David lives on Albert Bruno Avenue Charlie George lives on Bruno Albert Avenue George Ernie lives on Charlie Ernie Avenue 3x4 = 12 3x7 = 21 7x5 = 35

6 מטלה 4: לינדה לינדה היא בת 31, רווקה, מבריקה מאוד, ומבטאת בגלוי את דעותיה. באוניברסיטה היא למדה פילוסופיה. כשהיתה סטודנטית, היתה מעורבת עמוקות בנושאי אפליה, צדק חברתי וזכויות האזרח, וגם השתתפה בהפגנות של "שלום עכשיו". אתם מתבקשים לדרג את האמירות בשקף הבא לפי סבירותן, כאשר 1 מציין את הכי סבירה ו- 8 את הכי פחות סבירה.

7 א. לינדה היא מורה בביה"ס היסודי ב. לינדה עובדת בחנות ספרים ומשתתפת בשיעורי יוגה ג. לינדה פעילה בתנועה הפמיניסטית ד. לינדה היא עובדת סוציאלית קלינית ה. לינדה היא חברה בארגון נשות "הדסה" ו. לינדה היא כַּספָּרית בבנק ז. לינדה היא אשת מכירות בסוכנות ביטוח ח. לינדה היא כַּספָּרית בבנק ופעילה בתנועה הפמיניסטית

8 Shane Frederick (personal communication, April 2003) has used simple puzzles to study cognitive self- monitoring, as in the following example: “A bat and a ball cost $1.10 in total. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?” Almost everyone reports an initial tendency to answer “10 cents” because the sum $1.10 separates naturally into $1 and 10 cents, and 10 cents is about the right magnitude. Frederick found that many intelligent people yield to this immediate impulse: 50% (47/93) of Princeton students, and 56% (164/293) of students at the University of Michigan gave the wrong answer. (Kahneman, 2002, p. 451) מטלה 1, מחבט וכדור: נתונים

9 An example is provided by the most investigated task in the entire reasoning and problem solving literature--Wason’s (1966) selection task. The participant is shown four cards lying on a table showing two letters and two numbers (A, D, 3, 8). They are told that each card has a number on one side and a letter on the other and that the experimenter has the following rule (of the if P, then Q type) in mind with respect to the four cards: “If there is a vowel on one side of the card, then there is an even number on the other side”. The participant is then told that he/she must turn over whichever cards are necessary to determine whether the experimenter’s rule is true or false. מטלה 2, בחירת קלפים: נתונים

10 Performance on such abstract versions of the selection task is extremely low (Evans, Newstead, & Byrne, 1993; Manktelow, 1999; Newstead & Evans, 1995). Typically, less than 10% of participants make the correct selections of the A card (P) and 3 card (not-Q)--the only two cards that could falsify the rule. The most common incorrect choices made by participants are the A card and the 8 card (P and Q) or the selection of the A card only (P).

11 בעייה קשה ומעצבנת, אבל האם בעייה של זיכרון? כמה "עובדות כפל" צריך ללמוד בעל פה?רק 20 ! להשוואה, למידת שפת אם: 10 מלים חדשות ביום, 20,000 מלים במשך השנים כולל איך לבטא, איך לאיית, ומה המשמעות Arithmetic facts are not arbitrary and independent of each other. On the contrary, they are closely intertwined and teeming with false regularities, misleading rhymes and confusing puns. ( Dehaene,1997: The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics ) מטלה 3, שמות וכתובות: הסברים

12 I am particularly fond of [the Linda] example, because I know that the [conjunction] is least probable, yet a little homunculus in my head continues to jump up and down, shouting at me, “but she can’t just be a bank teller: read the description.”... Why do we consistently make this simple logical error? Tversky and Kahneman argue, correctly I think, that our minds are not built (for whatever reason) to work by the rules of probability. Gould (1992, p. 469) (Gigerenzer, 2005) מטלה 4, לינדה: נתונים והסברים

13 Which of two alternatives is more probable: Linda is a bank teller Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement? The majority of undergraduates (85 percent) chose the second alternative. Tversky and Kahneman argued that this is an error of judgment, the “conjunction fallacy,” because it violates logic. “Like it or not, A cannot be less probable than (A and B), and a belief to the contrary is fallacious. Our problem is to retain what is useful and valid in intuitive judgment while correcting the errors and biases to which it is prone” (Tversky and Kahneman, 1982: 98). (Gigerenzer, 2005)