BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOIL FERTILITY INSTITUTE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE FEBRUARY 18, 2015 Sosten Lungu, Ph.D Vermont Technical College
Outline The Importance of Soil Soil Physical Properties Soil Organic Matter Soil Reaction N, P and K Soil Sampling and Testing Fertilizer/Manure Recommendations
Soil – Life Supporting Layer - Temperature - Gases - Water - Nutrients - Plant Growth
Air 25% Mineral Matter 45% Water 25% Organic Matter 5% SOIL Definition: Mixture of mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air. Example:
Physical Properties Soil texture - Proportion of three sizes of soil particles -
Soil Texture Texture alone will provide information about: 1) Water flow potential (infiltration and Percolation) 2) Water holding capacity, 3) Fertility potential, 4) Aeration 5) Drainage rate 6) Soil organic matter 7) Warm-up in spring
Soil Texture Texture alone will provide information about: 8 ) Compaction 9) Resistance to pH change 10) Decomposition of organic matter 11) Suitability for tillage after rain
USDA Textural Triangle
Soil Structure Arrangement of sand, silt, clay and organic particles The particles are aggregated to form structural units called PEDS or AGGREGATES
Structure
Why is Soil Structure Important? - Air movement - Water movement - Microbial activities/reproduction - OM accumulation/breakdown - Root development - Leaching of nutrients - Soil erosion
Soil Management Affects soil structure: - Timber harvest - Grazing - Machinery traffic - Manure application - Erosion - Irrigation
Soil Structure
Degree of Water Movement Structure Water Movement
Penetrometers Measuring Compaction OIL/photos/May0505a-lr.jpg
Soil Color Indicator of certain physical and chemical characteristics Due to humus Or iron compounds Anaerobic conditions
Nutrient Pools Soil Organic matter
Soil Organic Matter Improves soil structure & water holding Provides CEC Source of essential plant nutrients - 90 – 98% N and S - 30 – 50% P - Micronutrients
Organic Matter
Stable OM - Complex organic compounds (Humic & Falvic acids, humin - Deposited centuries ago Functions Water sorption CEC Glue Active OM - Less complex non humic substances - Deposited 1-2 years ago Functions Source of energy for MO Aggregation Source of mineralized N, P & S
Fresh Residues Up to 15% of organic matter is fresh residue (usually <10) Comprised mainly of litter fall
Decomposing Organic Matter Plant material is transformed from one organic compound to another mainly by organisms in the soil Organisms create by-products, wastes, and cell tissue
SOM can be maintained with: Proper fertilization Crop rotations, and tillage practices Returning crop residues to the soil.
Factors Controlling SOM 1) Texture 2) Climate 3) Management practices Established in 1876 the Morrow Plots are the oldest agronomic experiment fields in the United States. They include the longest-term continuous corn plot in the world. Located near the center of the University of Illinois' Urbana campus. manure, lime and phosphorus (MLP) Morrow Plots – Why the difference in SOM?
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Positive charge ions (Ca 2+, Mg 2+, K +, Na +, H +, Al 3+, Fe 3+ ) The capacity to hold on to these cations is called CEC These cations are held by the negative charged clay and organic matter particles
CEC
Why do soils have CEC? Because clay and OM tend to be negative charged OM can have 4 to 50 times higher CEC Negative charge in OM comes from breakdown of organic compounds
Base Saturation (BS) Important soil property Defined as percentage of total CEC occupied by Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+ BS increases with increasing pH
CHEMICAL REACTION SOIL ACIDITY
Balance between (H+) and (OH-) Processes that promote soil acidification are: Production of H ions Washing away of non-acid cations
Importance of Soil pH Availability of essential plant nutrients Influences chemical reactions Activity of microorganisms Solubility (toxicity) of non-essential elements Performance/carryover of some herbicides
SOIL pH and Nutrient Availability
POOLS OF SOIL ACIDITY Active acidity Salt-replaceable acidity Residual acidity
Active acidity Free hydrogen ions in soil solution Very small part of total acidity in soil Takes <1/3 lb/acre limestone to neutralize
Exchangeable Acidity Amount of acid cations (Al and H) on the CEC Common in soils that have a low base saturation
Residual (Reserve) Acidity H ions and Al ions chemically bound to organic matter and clay Estimated by buffer pH This is what limestone must neutralize when acid soils are limed in order to increase pH
Residual (Reserve) Soils with large CEC can hold large amount of acidity These soils are highly buffered Require large amounts of lime to increase soil pH
How do Soils Become Acidic? Carbonic and other organic acids Accumulation of organic matter
How Soils Become Acidic? Oxidation of Nitrogen Oxidation of S Acids in precipitation (acid rain) Plant uptake of cations
How Soils Become Acidic? Clay and Oxide Minerals Soluble salts - Mineral weathering - Addition of manure
ROLE OF Al 3+ IN SOIL ACIDITY Aluminum is highly toxic to most organisms Al 3+ ions splits water molecules into H + and OH - ions
Al Hydrolysis in Soils Al 3+ + H 2 O = Al(OH) 2+ + H + Al(OH) 2+ + H 2 O = Al(OH) H + Al(OH) H 2 O = Al(OH) H + Al(OH) H 2 O = Al(OH) H +
Aluminum Toxicity Occurs in soils with high Al minerals Al minerals dissolves in soil solution at pH < 5.4
Effects of Al 3+ Interferes with cell division in roots Inhibits nodule initiation Makes P unavailable to plants
Al Toxicity Increases cell wall rigidity Interferes with uptake of water and nutrients Decreases root respiration Interferes enzymes governing deposition of sugars
Correcting Soil Acidity
What is a Liming Material? Material containing Ca and/or Mg compounds capable of neutralizing soil acidity
Amount of Lime to add Depends on: Quality of Lime Soil buffer Capacity Desired pH range
Lime Quality Two properties of Lime govern its quality: 1. Chemical Purity 2. Fineness
Chemical Purity Expressed as Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE) CCE is acid neutralizing capacity of a liming material expressed as a weight percentage of CC Pure CC is the standard against which other liming materials are measured
Agricultural Liming Materials
Fineness Particle size Reaction rate depends on surface area Reaction rate increases with decreasing particle size
How Lime Neutralizes Soil Acidity
Liming Reactions
Nutrition Plant nutrients
Essential Plant Nutrients
Nitrogen Most frequent deficient nutrient in non legumes Most soils need inorganic and or organic N sources
Nitrogen Cycle
The N Cycle N = 78 % in atmosphere Plants cannot directly metabolize N directly into protein Must be converted to plant available N
N Conversion Symbiotic microbes on legume roots Free living non-symbiotic microbes Atmospheric electric discharges Manufacture of synthetic N fertilizers
Forms of Nitrogen Urea CO(NH 2 ) 2 Ammonia NH 3 (gas) Ammonium NH 4 Nitrate NO 3 Nitrite NO 2 Atmospheric Dinitrogen N 2 (gas) Organic N
Forms of N in Plants Plants contain 1 – 6 % N by weight Plants absorb N both as ammonium ( NH 4 + ) or Nitrate (NO 3 - )
Function of N Formation of proteins Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) Component of energy transfer compounds (ATP and ADP) Integral part of chlorophyll
Visual Deficient Symptoms Yellowing on leaves/leaf veins Loss of protein N in older leaves
Over supply of Nitrogen: 1. Excessive vegetation 2. May cause lodging 3. Delay plant maturity 4. Plants may be more susceptible to disease. 5. Can cause nitrate poisoning in cattle grazing forages
Nitrogen Cycle Mineralization Immobilization Nitrification Denitrification Nitrogen Fixation
Mineralization
It is a two step process: 1. Aminization 2. Ammonification
Aminization
Ammonification
Ammonium (NH4+) produced is subject to several fates - Nitrification - Absorbed by plants - Immobilization
C:N Ratio Effects on Mineralization Important in planning crop rotations MO need a ratio of 24:1(16 for energy and 8 for maintenance) If alfalfa hay (C:N 25:1) is added, No excess N left over
C:N Ratio of different materials: Topsoil10:1 Alfalfa13:1 Rotted manure20:1 Cornstalks60:1 Grain straw80:1 Coal124:1 Oak200:1 Spruce1000:1
Immobilization The opposite of mineralization Happens when nitrogen is limiting in the environment Nitrogen limitation is governed by C/N ratio C/N typical for soil microbial biomass is 20 C/N < 20 Mineralization C/N > 20 Immobilization
Nitrification NH 4 + NO 2 - NO 3 - ammonium nitrite nitrate Nitrosomonas NH 4 + NO energy Nitrobacter NO 2 - NO energy
Soil Conditions Favoring Nitrification Rapid in well-aerated, warm, moist soils Supply of Ammonium Population of bacteria Soil pH (5 -9)
Ammonia Volatilization Urea: CO(NH 2 ) 2 NH 3 +CO 2 + H 2 O urea soil enzymes & H 2 O - Most volatilization when: coarse or sandy-textured soils low clay and low organic matter (which adsorb NH 4 + ) dry alkaline surface
Denitrification Gaseous loss of N upon N reduction + e - + e - + e - + e - NO 3 - NO 2 - NO N 2 O N 2 nitric nitrous oxide oxide
Denitrification (cont’d) * Microorganisms responsible: facultative anaerobes - prefer O 2 but will use N for a terminal e - acceptor mostly heterotrophic - use organic-C for energy source
Denitrification (cont’d) * Denitrification enhanced by: low O 2 (flooding) high O.M. (energy source) high NO 3 -
Nitrogen Fixation N 2 (organisms) NH 4 + * Symbiotic relation between bacteria and plants: - legumes + - rhizobium
What is Rhizobia? Bacteria that fix N in association with plants Rhizobia are specific to host plant There are 6 genera of bacteria that fix N 1. Rhizobium 2. Bradyrhizobium 3. Sinorhizobium 4. Azorhizobium 5. Allorhizobium 6. Azorhizobium
Process: Rhizobium nodule
(b) Process: C from plant photosynthesis N from fixation of N 2 symbiosis symbiosis Rhizobium organic-C N2N2N2N2 organic-N
Quantity of N Fixed 4 Depends on the following: 1. Soil pH 2. Photosynthesis 3. Management - Water - Nutrients - Weeds - pests
Benefits of Legumes Economics: - N captured by legumes due to use of inoculants costing $2.00/acre - N fertilizer costing $87.00/acre Environment
N Fixation Comparisons Industrial N FixationBiological Nitrogen Fixation Need 2 metric tons of coal/ton of NH 3 Coordination of 23 genes to fix 165 – 450 lbs N/acre/yr Pressure atm.Ambient pressure Temp – 500 CAmbient temperatures Natural gas is the feedstock for H Energy comes from oxidation of organic C Unsustainable systemSustainable system
Industrial N Fixation
Inorganic N Fertilizers Anhydrous ammonia (82% N) Urea (45-46% N) Ammonium Nitrate (33-34% N) Urea-ammonium nitrate (28-32% N)
Nutrition Phosphorus
Functions of P in Plants Energy storage and transfer Essential element in DNA and RNA that contain the genetic code of the plant Associated with increased root growth Adequate P increases straw strength in cereals and increases N 2 -fixation capacity of legumes
P Deficiency - Stunted - Foliage dark purplish to bluish green
The Phosphorus Cycle Solution P Crop Harvest Crop Harvest Manure P Fertilizer P Crop Residue Crop Residue Labile Stable Organic P Labile Inorganic P Stable From: Livestock and Poultry Environmental Stewardship Leaching
Pathways for P Loss from Soils
Forms of Soil P Solution P - Orthophosphate (HPO 4 2- and H 2 PO 4 - ) - The two species of orthophosphate are determined by solution pH
P Cycle Chemical forms - Organic P - Ca inorganic P - Fe/Al inorganic P
Organic P Mineralization and immobilization - Similar processes to N - C/P ratios of 300:1 – net immobilization - 200:1 net mineralization
Inorganic P or Fixed P Precipitation by Al, Fe, and Ca - Fe 3+ + H 2 PO H 2 O = 2H + + Fe(OH) 2 H 2 PO 4 - Al 3+ + H 2 PO H 2 O = 2H + + Al(OH) 2 H 2 PO 4 - Ca 2+ + H 2 PO H 2 O = 2H + + Ca(OH) 2 H 2 PO 4
Solubility of Inorganic P Depends on - Soil pH - Aeration
Factors Influencing inorganic P Fixation - Clay content - Type of clay - Organic matter - Time and Temperature - Flooding
P Best Management Practices 1. Soil testing and sound recommendations 2. Determine available P credits 3. P placement
Dietary ManipulationManure Treatment Less Available P in Manure Agronomic Application Rates Erosion Control Buffer Strips Improved Water Quality
Potassium Absorbed as K+ ion Unique nutrient – not part of any plant compound Exists in plat sap
The Potassium Cycle
K in primary mineral structure Unavailable (90-98% of all soil K) K in nonexchangeable positions of secondary minerals Slowly available - fixed K is not easily exchangeable - In equilibrium with more available forms K in exchangeable form on soil colloid surfaces Readily available (1-2% of all soil K) -90% of readily available K ions soluble in water Readily available - Subject to leaching - Equilibrium with exchangeable form Availability of Potassium Forms
Functions of K in Plants Activates 80 different enzymes Lowers osmotic potential in cells Essential in photosynthesis, protein synthesis N fixation, starch formation Translocation of sugars Helps plants adapt to environmental stress
Functions of K in Plants It enhances fruit size, color in fruits/vegetables Involved in ATP synthesis Strengthens stems Balances other nutrients
Visual Deficiency Symptoms White spots on the leaf edges in alfalfa Visual symptoms appear in lower leaves first Weakening of the straw
Factors affecting K Availability Clay mineral and CEC Soil moisture Soil temperature Soil Aeration Soil pH
Sources of K Organic K – manures Inorganic K
SOIL TESTING Fertility
Soil Testing Provides index of nutrient availability Predict probability of obtaining a response to fertilizer or lime Basis to provide recommendations
Philosophies of Soil Testing 1. Maintenance approach – apply adequate amount of nutrients to replace nutrients removed - This method does not the capacity of soils to supply nutrients - This approach can lead to over-fertilization
Philosophies of Soil Testing Cation saturation ratio – based on proposition that an ideal soil has 65% exchangeable Ca, 10% Mg, 5% K and 20% H - This philosophy is not valid across soil types - It does not consider N, P, S or micronutrients
Philosophies of Soil Testing Sufficiency level approach – based on long term calibration of soil tests with field yield response data - This method gives nutrient levels - Low, Medium, Optimum, High, Excessive
Steps in Soil Testing Soil Sampling Soil Analysis Calibration/Correlation Recommendations
Soil Sampling The most critical step -1 lb of soil is often used to represent million lbs
How to Take a Soil Sample Do not sample from wet areas, eroded banks, bare spots, near trees, livestock watering areas Sampled areas must have the same soil texture and management Take a minimum of 20 to 30 random samples on 10 acres or less
How deep to sample In permanent hay fields, sample from 2 – 8 inches deep For no till fields, take two samples
When to sample Can be taken at any time of the year Do not take samples if the soil is wet or frozen Do not take samples shortly after fertilizer or lime application The best time is spring or fall
How often to Soil test Frequency of soil testing depends on: - Crop grown - Previous fertilization rates - Timing of lime application - In general, every 3- years
Soil Fertility Report pH Lime requirement Cation exchange cap. & exch. cations Available P Inorganic N (NO 3, NH 4 ) Organic matter Available micronutrients Reactive Aluminum
Other Soil Tests Pre sidedress soil Nitrate test (Corn) Corn Stalk Nitrogen Test
Adding Nutrients Manure
Manure Basics What is Manure? Urine, feces Waste feed Parlor water
Nutrient Value of Manure Test manure annually Collect sample before application Freeze sample immediately
Manure Basics How Much Manure Does a cow produce in a day? A week? A Month? A Year?
How Much Manure? Typical Dairy Cow: 148 lbs/day (18 gal) 1036 lbs/week (124 gal) 4440 lbs/month (531 gal) lbs/year (6460 gal) Does not include youngstock, other wastes
Rule of Thumb #1 One cow plus replacement plus wastewater = 10,000 gal/year
What is in manure? Nutrients Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium Micro nutrients Whatever the cow eats that does not become milk or meat becomes manure. If it’s in the feed, it’s in the manure.
Dairy Diet and Runoff Manure from 2 rations applied 1.28 and 0.48% P (rec is ) Runoff was 4x higher for high P diet Same lbs P applied Runoff was 10x higher when manure rates were the same. Ebeling et al, 2001
Dairy Diet Impacts Ave P in dairy ration is 0.47% Gunderson, Keuning & Erb, 2001 NRC Recommendation is % P Higher rates are due to belief that lower P reduces reproductive efficiency.
The Manure Paradox Crops use N:P:K in a 3:1:2 ratio Dairy manure is a 1:1:2 ratio (available) Meet the crop’s N need = excess P Meet the crop’s P need = buy N fert
Corn Nutrient Need vs. Manure Nutrient Supply Following a Nitrogen Strategy lb/acre
Manure Application Rates Nitrogen Strategy Maximum rates P and K in excess of crop need Efficient with time and labor Preferred when land is limited
Corn Nutrient Need vs. Manure Nutrient Supply Following a Phosphorus Strategy lb/acre
Manure Application Rates Phosphorus Strategy Low rates Need supplemental nitrogen Increased time and labor Need adequate acreage
Economics $0.20/lb) 100 Cow Dairy Alfalfa N =$ 1,200 ( lbs N/a) Manure N =$ 1,320 (22 3 lbs N/ton) Total On-Farm N =$ 2,520
Economics (P 2 O $0.25/lb; K 2 $0.13/lb) 100 Cow Dairy Manure P 2 O 5 =$ 1,650 (22 3 lbs P 2 O 5 /ton) Manure K 2 O =$ 2,288 (22 8 lbs K 2 O/ton) Total Manure P & K 2 O =$ 3,938
If You Are Going To Use Manure as a Fertilizer… Treat It Like A Fertilizer!
Challenges of the Future: Dairy Trends Management: More cows, fewer farms. Realization by farmers that manure management requires a cash investment Manure’s Internet IPO: Lots of ideas now, lots of broken ideas coming in a few years. Easiest to use / most farm-profitable techniques will remain.