Poverty, Disadvantage, and Social Exclusion Jill Duerr Berrick School of Social Welfare University of California at Berkeley Association of Children’s Welfare Agencies Conference Sydney, Australia August 21, 2012

Presentation Overview Money, kids, and the global economy Money, kids, and the global economy Families and economic vulnerability Families and economic vulnerability Economic vulnerability, child outcomes, and maltreatment Economic vulnerability, child outcomes, and maltreatment Policy and practice implications Policy and practice implications

Parenting in “Hard Times?”

Trends in U.S. Unemployment U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

Periods of U.S. Recession

Recessions and Poverty

Trends in Australia’s Unemployment Rate ABS, 2009 Year

Work-Related “Hardships” During the Great Recession Unemployment Pay Cut Reduction in work hours Involuntary move to part-time employment Pew Research Center, 2010

Child Poverty in a Global Context UNICEF, 2012

Child Poverty in Australia

Changes in the Family Related to Economic Vulnerability

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability

# Adults Available To support children

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability # Adults Available To support children Number of children In the family to support

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability # Adults Available To support children Number of children In the family to support Parent ’ s work And wages

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Number of adults available to support children

# Adults Available to Support Children -- Australia 66% of births to parents in a “registered marriage” 66% of births to parents in a “registered marriage” % of lone-parent families declining % of lone-parent families declining Paternity establishment is improving Paternity establishment is improving ABS, 2010

“The majority of American children will live at least some part of their childhood in a family that does not include both biological parents.” Cancian, Meyer & Reed, 2010

“A quarter of all (Australian) children now spend some time during their first 15 years of life living in a lone parent family” Grey, 2004

Grandparent-headed families 16,000 grandparent-headed families in Australia 16,000 grandparent-headed families in Australia <1% of all Australian families <1% of all Australian families 61% of grandparents are age 55 or older 61% of grandparents are age 55 or older 66% of grandparent caregivers are not employed 66% of grandparent caregivers are not employed 64% depend on benefits or pension 64% depend on benefits or pension ABS, 2012; Dunne & Kettler, 2007; Shepley & Dann, 2006

U.S. Grandparents and the Recession

Recessions and Families Recessions can affect the structure of the family Recessions can affect the structure of the family The structure of the family can exacerbate the effects of a recession.

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Number of adults available to support children Number of children in the family to support

Australian Family Size Fertility rate: 1.8 births per woman Fertility rate: 1.8 births per woman 2.2 births per Aboriginal woman2.2 births per Aboriginal woman Age at first birth 30.7 years Age at first birth 30.7 years Australian Bureau of Statistics

Number of Children 1 child2 children Lone parent42%33% Two-parents26%41%

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Number of adults available to support children Number of children in the family to support Parents’ work and wages

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Number of adults available to support children Number of children in the family to support Parents’ work and wages Gender

Mothers and Work Mothers in 66% of couple-families work Mothers in 66% of couple-families work Mothers in 60% of lone-parent families work Mothers in 60% of lone-parent families work Australian gender-pay gap is approximately 17%Australian gender-pay gap is approximately 17% ABS, 2012; National Center for Social and Economic Modeling, 2009

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Race / Ethnicity Number of adults available to support children Number of children in the family to support Parents’ work and wages

Unemployment in Australia by Race/ Ethnicity Average Unemployment rate: 5.2% Unemployment rate Indigenous People: 15.8% Australian Bureau of Statistics

Factors Contributing to Family Economic Vulnerability Child Age Number of adults available to support children Number of children in the family to support Parents’ work and wages

The Macro-Economy Affects Families Differentially

Poverty’s Effects Poverty is not a benign event.

Poverty’s Effects on Child Well-Being Infant deaths Low-birth weight Birth complications Poor nutrition Chronic health conditions Stunted growth More illnesses & injuries

Poverty’s Effects on Child Well-Being Environmental toxins Poor quality education High drop-out rates Teen pregnancy Criminal activity Brain development

Poverty’s Effects on Learning The achievement gap starts early. At age 3, poor children have a vocabulary 1/3 as large as children in middle-class or higher families

The Macro-Economy Affects the Likelihood that Children will Live in Poverty which Affects the Experience of the Micro-Family

The Great Recession and Family Well-Being Fear Anxiety Stress Depression Strained Relationships Homelessness Children’s Behavior Change Boomerang Kids Hunger Frame, 2001

Tough Economic Times are Tough on Families

Family Poverty and Family Well-Being Child Welfare Service Involvement? Fear Anxiety Stress Depression Strained Relationships Homelessness Children’s Behavior Change Boomerang Kids Hunger

What are the Effects of The Great Recession on Child Welfare Involvement? How is Poverty Implicated in Child Maltreatment?

Los Angeles Maltreatment Referrals

Increases in head trauma Abuse-related head trauma Abuse-related head trauma 6 pediatric cases per month < 12/31/07 6 pediatric cases per month < 12/31/ per month > 1/1/ per month > 1/1/08 Children’s Hospital Pittsburg

Unemployment and Maltreatment For each 1% increase in unemployment, a 0.5 per 1,000 increase in confirmed maltreatment reports with a one-year delay. For each 1% increase in unemployment, a 0.5 per 1,000 increase in confirmed maltreatment reports with a one-year delay. American Academy of Pediatrics

Maltreatment and Housing Instability Housing delinquency payments and mortgage foreclosures may be associated with abuse-related hospital admissions Housing delinquency payments and mortgage foreclosures may be associated with abuse-related hospital admissions Wood et al., 2012

Understanding the link: Poverty, Family, Social Exclusion and Maltreatment

Poverty is the single most powerful predictor of child maltreatment

Unemployment & Maltreatment Children living with unemployed parents or parents unattached to the labor force are 2x more likely to abused and 3x more likely to be neglected Children living with unemployed parents or parents unattached to the labor force are 2x more likely to abused and 3x more likely to be neglected National Incidence Study-4

Poverty and Maltreatment Children in families with <$15,000 annual income are 3x more likely to be abused and 7x more likely to be neglected. Children in families with <$15,000 annual income are 3x more likely to be abused and 7x more likely to be neglected. National Incidence Study-4

Are low-income Parents “Bad Parents?”

Children, Children in Poverty, Child Victims of Maltreatment Child welfare population All Children Children in Poverty

Victims of Maltreatment in Australia About 3% of Australian children are subjects of notification re: child maltreatment About 3% of Australian children are subjects of notification re: child maltreatment Indigenous children 8x as likely to be substantiated Indigenous children 8x as likely to be substantiated 9x as likely to be on care and protection order 9x as likely to be on care and protection order 10x as likely to be in out-of-home care 10x as likely to be in out-of-home care AIHW

Why is it so hard to Parent in Poverty? Poverty-related stress Poverty-related stress Daily hassles Daily hassles Inadequate coping skills Inadequate coping skills Caregiver overload Caregiver overload Residence in communities with few formal supports Residence in communities with few formal supports High environmental stressors (e.g., crime) High environmental stressors (e.g., crime) Parental mental health/depression Parental mental health/depression Social Support Social Support Substance abuse Substance abuse Subjective experience of poverty Subjective experience of poverty Assaults to the caregiving system Assaults to the caregiving system Frame & Berrick, 2003

Explaining the Difference between Low-Income families reported for maltreatment vs. Low-income families not reported for maltreatment Reported for maltreatment: Reported for maltreatment: Mental health tx Mental health tx Substance abuse Substance abuse Adult disability Adult disability Lower income Lower income Not reported for maltreatment Jonson-Reid, et al., 2009

Characteristics Associated with Increased Odds of Child Welfare Events Young children Young children Single parent family Single parent family Larger families Larger families Born with low birth weight Born with low birth weight Late or no prenatal care Late or no prenatal care Increased time on aid Increased time on aid Breaks in aid receipt Breaks in aid receipt

Characteristics Associated with Increased Odds of Child Welfare Events (con’t) More hardships More hardships Deeper poverty Deeper poverty Homelessness Homelessness Substance abuse Substance abuse Parental stress Parental stress Prior child welfare Prior child welfare contact contact

Implications

Practice Implications Families need concrete resources before work in socio-emotional or psychological domains can be effective. Families need concrete resources before work in socio-emotional or psychological domains can be effective.

Implications for social workers Families need resource brokers to help them locate concrete and material supports. Families need resource brokers to help them locate concrete and material supports.

Implications for Policy The economy matters to children’s care workers. The economy matters to children’s care workers.

References Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012). Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2012). Child Protection Cancian, M., Meyer, D., & Reed, D. (2010). Promising anti-poverty strategies for families. Institute for Research on Poverty. Courtney, M., Piliavin, I., Dworsky, A., & Zinn, A. (2001). Involvement of TANF families with child welfare services. Paper presented at Association of Public Policy Analysis and Management Research Meeting. Washington, D.C., November 2, Dunne, E.G., & Kettler, L.J. (2007). Grandparents raising grandchildren in Australia: Exploring psychological health and grandparents’ experience of providing kinship care. International Journal of Social Welfare. Ehrle, J., Scarcella, C.A., & Geen, R. (2004). Teaming up: Collaboration between welfare and child welfare agencies since welfare reform. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, Frame, L. (2001). Parent- child relationships in conditions of poverty. Frame, L., & Berrick, J.D. (2003). The effects of welfare reform on families involved with public child welfare services: Results from a qualitative study. Children and Youth Services Review, 25(1-2), pp Geen, R., Fender, L., Leos-Urbel, J., & Markowitz, T. (February, 2001). Welfare reform’s effect on child welfare caseloads. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute. Grey, M. (2004). Transitions in childhood in: deVaus, D. Diversity and change in Australian families. Goerge, R.M., & Lee, B. (2000). Changes in child social program participation in the 1990s: Initial findings from Illinois. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall Center for Children, University of Chicago. Jonson-Reid, M., Drake, B., & Kohl, P. (2009). Is the overrepresentation of the poor in child welfare caseloads due to bias or need? Children and Youth Services Review Needell, B., Cuccaro-Alamin, S., Brookhart, A., & Lee, S. (1999). Transitions from AFDC to child welfare in California. Children and Youth Services Review, 21(9-10), Nelson, K.E., Saunders, E.J., & Landsman, M.J. (1993). Chronic child neglect in perspective. Social Work, 38 (6), Morris, P.A., Scott, E.K., & London, A. (in press). Effects on children as parents transition from welfare to employment. In J.D. Berrick & B. Fuller (Eds). Good parents or Good Workers? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Ovwigho, P., Leavitt, K., & Born, C. (2003). Risk factors for child abuse and neglect among former TANF families: Do later leavers experience greater risk? Children and Youth Services Review, 25 (9-10),

References (con’t) Paxton, C., & Waldfogel, J. (1999). Welfare reform, family resources, and child maltreatment. In B. Meyer & G. Duncan (Eds.), The incentives of government programs and the wellbeing of families. Chicago: Joint Center for Poverty Research Pew Research (June, 2010). The great recession at 30 months. Ryan, J.P., & Schuerman, J.R. (2004). Matching family problems with specific family preservation services: A study of service effectiveness. Children and Youth Services Review, 26 ( ). Shepley, J., & Dann, S. (2006). Research bulletin: Intergenerational caring. National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre. Shook, K. (1999). Does the loss of welfare income increase the risk of involvement with the child welfare service system? Children and Youth Services Review, 21 (9-10), UNICEF. (May, 2012). Report Card 10: Measuring child poverty. U.S.D.H.H.S. (2002). Trends in the well-being of America’s children and youth. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. U.S.D.H.H.S. (2002). Child maltreatment Washington, D.C.: Children’s Bureau U.S.D.H.H.S. (1996) Results of the third national incidence study on child maltreatment in the U.S. Washington, D.C. National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. Wells, K., & Guo, S. (2004). Reunification of foster children before and after welfare reform. Social Service Review Wells, K., & Guo, S. (2003). Mothers’ welfare and work income and reunification with children in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 25(3), Wood, J.N., Medina, S.P., Feutner, C., et al., (2012). Local macroeconomic trends and hospital admissions for child abuse. Pediatrics.

Contact Information: Jill Duerr Berrick Zellerbach Family Foundation Professor School of Social Welfare U.C. Berkeley Special thanks to Anna Jacobi for assistance with this presentation.