Chapter 2 - Britain

Cross of St. George of England St. Andrew of Scotland Wales St. Patrick’s Cross of (Northern) Ireland

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland*

Section One: Making of Modern British State

Geographic Setting Great Britain = England, Wales, Scotland Second island = 2 Irelands Britain or UK = United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland Offshore but adjacent to Europe Creates feeling of separation from but a part of Europe Island nature made it less subject to invasion and conquest

Critical Junctures British state formed through unification of kingdoms by conquest & treaty William of Normandy 1066 at the Battle of Hastings Acts of Union 1536 and 1542 united England and Wales Ascendency of James I united Scottish and English Crowns, Act of Union 1707 united England and Scotland Ireland added 1801 – N. Ireland remained in 1921 split

17 th Century Settlement Glorious Revolution 1788; creates framework for constitutional monarchy Parliamentary democracy emerges Creates Protestant foundation in Church of England Settles religious differences except in Ireland

Industrial Revolution and the British Empire Shapes Britain Creates social and economic changes; pressure for democratization Gradual improvement in standard of living but hurts skilled craft workers Cotton production becomes key – changed labor organization, relied on imports, depended on overseas trade – creates push for colonialism Become first industrial power – ¼ of world’s trade Was a hegemonic power Push to expand electorate: Reform Act 1832 Representation of the People Act of 1867 Franchise Act of 1884 Representation of the People Act 1918 Women got the vote in to 21 got the votes in 1969

World Wars, Industrial Strife, Depression Creates interventionist state Nationalized industries, set prices Free market vs. interventionist policies continued through WWII Collective Consensus (Collectivism) Agreed to the expansion of state to provide broad social welfare programs Fell apart with economic downturn in 1970s Margaret Thatcher/Enterprise Culture Believed collectivism lead to Britain’s decline Cut taxes, reduced social services, stimulated competition in the private sector Thatcherism led to an enterprise culture - individual responsibility, commitment to family, frugality, entrepreneurial spirit

New Labour’s Third Way Labour modernized by Blair and Brown offered a ‘third-way’ alternative Rejected interest-based politics, new ideas about welfare assistance, devolution of powers Brought down by US support in war in Iraq and London bombings in 2005 (Blair) and 2008 economic collapse (Brown) Blair and Brown met in 1983 Agreed to power sharing – led to almost dual executive

Sources of UK Authority and Power 1.Social Compacts and Constitutionalism Traditional legitimacy – the crown Rational-legal authority Magna Carta Bill of Rights Common Law “Constitution” of the Crown 2.Historical evolution of national political traditions The monarchy Ascendancy of Parliament Industrial Revolution challenges Colonialism Collective Consensus, Thatcherism, Third-Way 3.Political culture

3.Political Culture Nationalism Insularity Noblesse oblige – led to Welfare State Multi-national – 4 countries, differences in dialect, differences in relgion

Section Two: Political Economy and Development Is characterized by gradualism Sources of change are varied Industrial Revolution Extension of Rights Colonialism’s end Collective Consensus Thatcherism Third Way Big Society

1.Industrial Revolution – new social classes, labor unions, government programs created to respond to consequences of industrialization 2.Extension of Rights – House of Commons most powerful, party for workers 3.Colonialism's End – still have political and economic bonds with colonies

Consensus Era Followed Keynesian economics Beveridge Report created the Welfare state Supported by both parties Thatcherite Policy Orientation Supported neoliberalism Iron Lady New Labour’s Approach to Third Way Brown turned debt into surplus; spent it on NHS Saw globalization as positive; wanted foreign investment Conservative’s Big Society No longer support for “big government” Began austerity program in UK

Political Implications of UK’s Economic Policy Have never consistently followed any economic theory Each of the doctrines have helped to determine the moral and cultural vision of UK society Economics impact on social policy Less reform of Welfare State by Conservatives than expected – did encourage private services, tried to reduce dependency, but recession caused many to still use services New Labor focused on training and run by Department for World and Pensions – promised leaner welfare state Cameron’s Big Society – Devolution, volunteerism, charter schools, transparency – funded by the National Lottery

Impact of economy on society Economic inequality grew in 1980s, stabilized in 1990s Under Thatcher deepened inequalities Major lessened inequalities Inequalities still exist but have improved since 2007 Inequality and Ethnic Minorities ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by poverty and diminished opportunity Face cultural isolation and marginalized education experience Big gap for job opportunities for whites vs. ethnic groups Inequality and Women Pay gap of 19.1% - higher than EU average of 16.4% - but when you look at full time workers down to 9.4% Government has made family-friendly policies but at minimum EU standards

Section Three: Governance and Policy Making

Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy Reigns but does not rule - as Head of state (PM = Head of Government) Gives advice to PM (weekly meeting) Speech from the Throne: “My government” (speech written by PM) Apolitical (neutral) Parliamentary system Very Ceremonial! Queen Elizabeth II ( Present)

Linkage Institutions: Political Parties, Elections, Interest Groups, Media Political Parties Two party system emerged in 19 th century: Whigs (opposed the king – became Liberal Party) and Tories (supported the king – name today for Conservative Party) Labour Party emerged 20 th century in response to Industrial Revolution Today two party dominant system (Labour and Conservatives) but since 1980s other national parties have emerged Labour Party Founded by trade union reps and socialist societies Major party with victory in 1945 Began moderating ideology and expanding base Significantly changed since 1970s Currently moderate left-of-center Electoral performance more important than ideology

Labour Party Founded by trade union reps and socialist societies Clause 4 called for nationalization of British industry Major party with victory in 1945 Began moderating ideology and expanding base Significantly changed since 1970s 1990s ended Clause 4 Currently moderate left-of-center Current leaders were: Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, Ed Miliband, and now awaiting election in September In power

Conservative Party (Tories) One of most successful parties in Europe; center-right party Dominant from WWII to 1997 with PM in all years except 16 Internal divisions over Britain’s role in European Union (caused Thatcher’s fall) split party into 2 wings: Traditional wing Thatcherite wing (euroskeptics) Cameron assumed party leadership in – 2015 in coalition government with Nick Clegg (Lib Dem) 2015 won election with 12 seat majority – coalition fell

Liberal Democrats Only challenge to Labour and Conservatives through 1970s 1981 Social Democrats formed from split in Labour Party 1987 Liberal and Social Democrats merged After success in 2001 election positioned as center-left critic of New Labour Was in coalition government with conservatives in 2010 – 2015 Have campaigned for proportional representation, a Bill of Rights, EU membership Other Parties Plaid Cymru – Wales Scottish National Party – Scotland Seinn Fein and Democratic Unionist Party – Ireland Far right parties: British National Party and UK Independence Party

Elections Legislative posts only Elections must be held every five years Prime minister is elected from a district, not as PM The Plurality Electoral System election for Commons is winner takes all Single member plurality system (SMP) (also called first past the post) Single member plurality system Reduces influence of small parties Exaggerates victory of largest party Do not need to live in the district they represent contributes to Parliament of white men

2015 Updated - Party UK House of Commons Sc2ottish Assembly Assembly in Wales N. Ireland Assembly European Parliament Conservative Labour Liberal Democrats Democratic Unionist Scottish Nationlist Sinn Fein Plaid Cymru UKIP BNP Independent/other Green Alliance Social Democratic and Labor Ulster Unionist

Elections for Regional Governments Beginning with Good Friday Agreement devolution of powers has happened Based on proportional representation Recently clear majority parties have arisen in Scotland and Wales European Parliament Elections Every five years 2014 UKIP has most votes

Campaign financing Shorter and less expensive than in USA Face investigations when fail to spend money legally Interest groups Have interest group pluralism Characterized by neo-corporatism Greatest influence comes from quangos Most influential are linked to class and industrial interests Role of media Newspapers reflect social class division TV strictly regulated by government, BBC supported by license fee on all TVs Concern over relationship between government and media since phone hacking scandal of 2011

Institutions of National Government Overview Has three branches and a bureaucracy Legislature is bicameral No separation of powers No judicial review Unitary State Core principle of Westminister Model is parliamentary sovereignty Cabinet and Prime Minister Each cabinet heads major bureaucracy of the government Based out of 10 Downing Street Based on collective responsibility for making policy for the country – about 2 dozen ministers Publically support the Prime minister’s decisions but may disagree behind closed doors There is no grid lock between legislature and executive as there is in the USA but also huge power in Prime Minister

The Legislature – Parliament Today doesn’t legislature but more assents to Prime Minster and Cabinet Little separation of powers between cabinet and Parliament Bills can be introduced in both houses, but approval by House of Lords is not required Ideas for laws come from various places, complex system to get a law made Once goes through houses, goes to Crown for royal assent (a formality) and becomes a law – Act of Parliament House of Commons three functions: pass laws, provide finances for the state through taxation, review administration and government policy Party in majority and loyal opposition with shadow cabinet Backbenchers are less influential but play a role Vote of no confidence can cause government to fall Question time is the “check” on government

House of Lords Almost no power among 781 members Made up of 92 hereditary peer, 26 Lords Spiritual, rest are life peers Only delay legislation and debate technicalities of bills Used to have five law lords but changed with House of Lords Act of 1999 Numerous suggestions for its revision, but so far no other changes

Bureaucracy and Civil Service Located along Whitehall (road that encompasses Parliament Square and many governmental ministries) In practice shares policymaking with the cabinet Conceptualize and refine policy Reforms have streamlined and reshaped civil service Top civil servants have a great deal of discretionary power to make many decisions in legislative and executive decisions

The Judiciary and Supreme Court 0 12 justices 0 Final court of appeal in the UK for civil cases. 0 Hears appeals in criminal cases from England, Wales and Northern Ireland 0 Determines devolution issues (have devolved governments acted within their powers?) 0 Ensures laws are consistent with EU laws and the European Convention on Human Rights 0 cannot overturn any primary legislation made by Parliament ( no judicial review) 0 Common law—precedent

Other State Institutions Military: focused on NATO; Ranked top 5 in world; Involvement in Iraq unpopular – Blair tried to make the caseBlair tried to make the case Police - traditionally independent but since 1980s increased government control, centralization, and politicization Subnational Government - Scotland, Wales, N. Ireland No constitutional powers Considerable financial/policy discretion West Lothian Question created Have had devolution of power a mayor of London – which London?which London Scottish Parliament – voted down independence in 2014 National Assembly of Wales N. Ireland Assembly (under St. Andrews Agreement)

Section Four: Citizens, Society, and the State

Multi-National Identities England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland Social Class Distinction Working class vs. middle class Education Ethnic Minorities Number has grown ½ are under the age of 25 Tension with police Muslim Minorities Concerns over homegrown terrorism due to social class differences, link to Pakistan, UK participation in war in Iraq, lack of integration Eastern European minorities – number is rising

Political beliefs and values have followed the following trajectory: Decreasing support for labor unions Increased violence regarding Northern Ireland Thatcherism – rejection of noblesse oblige New Labour – Good Friday agreement, loosened support of labor unions Protest over Iraq War Voting behavior Social class patterns Regional Patterns

Section Five: British Politics in Transition

Matters of Public Policy in Britain Today Evolving relationship between government and the economy Keynesianism vs. neoliberalism Austerity programs Welfare state Transparency in government Abuse of power Political efficacy among Britons Relationship with EU Refusal to join the euro Loss of sovereignty due to EU policies Referendum in 2017 to stay Terrorism and Violence 7/7/05 – London bombings by 4 Muslim extremists Hate crimes grew Knighting of Salman Rushdie created affront to Muslim community Struggling with singling out extremists amongst moderates Relationship with the USA UK support of US war in Iraq caused problems Damaged relationship with France, caused dissent in Labour Party, led to Blair’s resignation

Devolution and Constitutional Reform Began process of devolution 1999 created Scottish and Welsh assemblies 1998 Good Friday Agreement set up Home Rule – 2002 to 2007 shut down due to violence 2009 two British soldiers and police constable were killed and dissident IRA terrorists claimed responsibility – brought peaceful protests across N. Ireland Hope when leaders of Sinn Fein, Democratic Union Party, and English bosses of N. Ireland police were photographed shoulder to shoulder outside N. Ireland Assembly Creating of office of mayor and general assembly for London 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum 44.7% yes 55.3% no