German Academy for Driving Instructors University of Potsdam Institute for Applied Research on Childhood, Youth, and the Family Dipl.-Psych. Bianca Bredow Prof. Dr. Dietmar Sturzbecher Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara Effectiveness of Simulation-based Trainings for Drivers

2/11 Expectations on simulation-based trainings Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara Possibly potentials:  Control of the training environment 1  Standardization of learning content; possibility to purposefully train learner drivers according to their competencies 2  Experience of driving situations, that are rarely to find and cannot be planned in regular traffic 1  Experience of dangerous driving situations under low-risk conditions 1, 3  Experience the effects of distractors (e. g. mobile phones) 1  Objective and ecologically valid performance measurements 1, 2, 4  Novel possibilities for feedback  Cost-efficiently widening of learning-time 1 Hoeschen et al., 2001; 2 van Emmerik, 2004; 3 Weiß et al., 2009; Genschow, Sturzbecher & Willmes-Lenz, 2013; 4 Lew et al., 2005

3/11 Approaches to classify simulators (1)Kind of model 1 :  Physical model (complete or partial replica of a vehicle)  Computer model (computer software, possibly with several screens or with pedals and a steering wheel)  Symbolic model (dummy without virtual display) (2) Level of fidelity 1 :  Low vs. high fidelity dependent e. g. on resolution, accuracy, interaction, temporality, causality and sensitivity (3) Kind of simulated road user 2 :  e. g. car driver, motorcyclist, truck driver or driver of an emergency vehicle (4) Costs 3 :  Low cost < Euro resp. < TRY  Medium cost< Euro resp. < TRY  High cost< Euro resp. < TRY  Very high cost> Euro resp. > TRY 1 Roza, 2005; 2 Ewert & Steiner, 2013; 3 Hoeschen et al., 2001 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

4/11 Effectiveness of computer-based trainings The possibilities for training skills in hazard perception and hazard avoidance by using scientifically founded, computer-based low-cost- simulators were examined in different empirical studies, e.g.: 1 Regan, Triggs & Godley, „Drive Smart“ from Australia… … has been developed for driving licence applicants at the Monash University Accident Research Centre. … is focussing on hazard perception and anticipation as well as on attentional control while coping with multiple cognitive demands. Experimental studies in a driving simulator envi- ronment proved the effectiveness by significant improvement of hazard perception and attentional control. Moreover they give evidence of transfer effects on similar and novel hazard situations. 1 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

5/11 Effectiveness of computer-based trainings 1 Fisher, Pollatsek & Pradhan, 2006; Pollatsek et al., 2006; Fisher, „Risk Awareness and Perception Training” from the USA… … is a computer-based interactive presentation of risky szenarios focus- sing on hazard anticipation and maintaining attention. Experimental studies in driving simulators and real traffic showed significant better scanning beha- viour; lasting (near and far) transfer effects could be proved. Chapman et al. (2002) conducted an experimental study with another computer-based training and found a significant better scanning behaviour in real traffic, too. Additionally Taylor et al. (2011) showed that even very short computer-based trainings (1 hour duration) can cause a better scanning behaviour in real traffic; this applies yet six months after training. Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

6/11 First conclusion The evidences indicate that computer-based trainings have a significant potential to foster the hazard perception skills of learner drivers:  They can be a useful addition to theory lessons and practical training. However, computer-based trainings are not generally effective:  The effectiveness depends on the specific design of the learning material.  Therefore we have to consider pedagogical and media psychological findings, if we want to develop effective computer-based trainings. 1 1 Petzoldt et al., 2011; Brünken & Malone, 2011 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

7/11 Effectiveness of high-cost simulators In the field of driver education high-cost simulators are much less in common use than computer-based trainings:  There are just a few studies that investigated the effectiveness of high- cost simulators; those studies are often limited in their methodical design. 1 Existing studies show, that high-cost simulators are more qualified for impartation of competencies like control of traffic situations, self- reflection, hazard perception and hazard avoidance than for impartation of competencies like hazard defence. 2 1 Cohn et al., 2009; de Winter, van Leeuwen & Happee, 2013; 2 Hoeschen et al., 2001; Ewert & Steiner, 2013; Bönninger & Sturzbecher, 2005 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

8/11 Influences on the effectiveness of simulators Effectiveness is not monocausal related to the fidelity of the simulator; fidelity can ambigously influence training effects:  On the one hand a high fidelity fosters the „ecological validity“ of the learning environment and the user acceptance of the training.  On the other hand a high fidelity resp. a high complexity of the learning environment fosters distraction and interferes with purposefully learning.  Instead of being too complex, simulators should be focussed on the competencies one would like to improve. For a successful acquisition of skills and a lasting transfer…  the design of the learning material,  the didactic integration of the simulator in the learning process, and  the kind of learner support are more important than die type of applied simulator! 1 1 Brünken & Malone, 2011; Vlakveld, 2005; de Winter et al., 2009; Mayora, 2007 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

9/11 Principles to involve simulation-based trainings successfully in driver training 1 (1) Focus on real-world problems:  Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems. (2) Activation:  Learning is promoted when relevant previous experiences are activated. (3) Demonstration:  Learning is promoted when the instruction demonstrates what has to be learned rather than merely telling information about what has to be learned. (4) Application:  Learning is promoted when learners are required to use their new knowledge or skills to solve problems.  For this purpose scaffolding techniques should be used. (5) Integration:  Learning is promoted when learners are encouraged to integrate the new knowledge or skills into their everyday life. 1 Bressensdorf et al., 1995; Merill, 2002; de Groot, de Winter, Mulder & Wieringa, 2007 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

10/11 Second conclusion Simulation-based training is relatively unexplored compared to driver training on the roads:  Existing studies suggest that simulation-based trainings can be an effective addition to traditional driver training. Effectiveness depends above all on the media design and the integration in driver training, less on technical aspects:  Technical requirements should be selected by reference to the training purposes.  A compromise is needed, in which positive intervention effects (validity, user acceptance) should be weighted against negative effects (complexity, distraction). 1 1 de Winter, 2009 Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara

11/11 Third conclusion By developing simulation-based trainings, aspects of efficiency (costs, dissemination) have to be considered:  Computer-based trainings can be merged with low costs and a high prevalence. Çok teşekkür ederim! Workshop on Simulator-Based Trainings for Driver 15 th of May, Ankara