Define the aim and target population of a study Aim: the purpose of the study Target population: the group being investigated Procedure: step by step process to carry out the reseach Finding: the interpretation of the data Credibility: increases if findings are repeated Participants: those taking part in the study

Sampling techniques Representative sample One that represents the characteristics of the population Size matters- the larger the better Opportunity (convenience) samples Marketing surveys, tables in malls offering food or drink Gender imbalances, cultural imbalances, age and income imbalance (university students) Sampling bias is a criticism of many studies

Sampling Issues University students Have strong need for peer approval Pre-selected for competence in cognitive skills More egocentric than adults Self-selected volunteers Easy to obtain but Highly motivated Rarely reflect the general population

Sampling Issues Snowball sampling Participants recruit others from their family and friends Drug users, volunteer work Participant Variability To what extent do the participants share a common set of traits that can bias the outcome Who would volunteer for a study about homosexuality?

Sampling continued Random Every member of the target population has a chance of being selected It is assumed that the sample is large enough Removes selection bias It is easier to generalize from the findings In mulitcultural communities random might not be representative Stratified sample Draws samples from each subsection of the population

Ethics in Research All participants must be treated in an ethical manner Informed consent Deception Not ethical unless necessary for the purpose of the study and then only if full disclosure is done afterwards Debriefing At the end of all studies the true aim and purpose must be revealed and all participants must leave without undue stress

Ethics in Research Withdrawal from study All participants have the right to withdraw at any time with their data Confidentiality All information is confidential Protection from physical or mental harm No harm is done

Evaluation of Finding Interpretation of finding is an essential skill There should be a practical application Validity does the research do what it claims to do Ecological validity- does the research represent what happens in real life (issues with lab studies) Cross-cultural validity- is the research ethnocentric or apply to all cultures Reliability Can the results be replicated

TOK Researchers wanted to explore students stress levels during exams Take blood one month, one week and one day before to measure cortisol a stress hormone natural sciences and objective Students are asked how stressed they feel human sciences and more subjective Is one way of knowing better than the other?

Assessing Empirical Studies Critical thinking- do not just accept it as true Is it based on a representative group Was it conducted in a lab or in the natural setting Were the participants asked to do things that are far from real life Are the findings supported by other studies Do the findings have a practical relevance Ethical guidelines followed

Experimental Methods Goal (aim) is to find a cause and effect relationship between variables Independent Dependent Variables must be operationalized Written so that it is clear what is being measured

Find the variables in the following hypotheses People are more likely to make a risky decision when they are in a group than when they are alone An increase in carbohydrates decreases one’s ability to concentrate People with react more quickly to an auditory stimulus than a visual stimulus Lack of sleep will affect learning new words negatively Children who have watched a film with a model hitting a blow-up doll will exhibit more aggressive acts towards a blow-up doll than children who have not watched the film

Experimental Hypothesis Alternative (experimental) hypothesis Predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV Controls used for comparison Null hypothesis will state that the IV will have no effect on the DV or that any change will be due to chance Researchers refute the null hypothesis to show the predicted cause and effect relationship We can only disprove something...not prove anything

Kinds of Experiments Laboratory Must consider ecological validity Field In field but researchers manipulate variables Natural No control over the variables- they are already there to study e.g. Children who have been kept in isolation by parents or research on stroke victims

Points to Consider Confounding variables Undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the IV and DV Demand characteristics Participants act differently because they are in a study Hawthorne Effect Use single blind study- participants do not know what the study is about

Points to Consider Researcher (observer) bias Researcher sees what they are looking for Use double blind studies to avoid this Participant variability Characteristics of the sample affect the dependent variable Controlled with random sampling Artificiality The situation is so unlikely to occur that the validity is highly suspect

Correlation Studies Show a relationship between variables Positive correlation- as x increases y increases Negative correlation- as one increases the other decreases There is no cause and effect as something else might be involved that we don’t know about Bidirectional ambiguity

Non-experimental Methods Quantitative Reliable, valid, replicate, generalize Qualitative How people explain their experiences Insight into psychological processes How we work as a team How we cope with stress Based on a research question(s)

Quantitative vs Qualitative Quantitative Deductive approach- variables identified and data generates theory- objective Qualitative Inductive approach- no variables are defined in advance- data is gathered and then analysed Do not identify cause and effect Interpret to find meaning Describe meanings attributed to events- subjective

Types of Qualitative Research Interviews Interviewer effects must be guarded against Participant bias must be watched for Social desirability bias (people don’t always tell the truth) Structured interview Highly controlled and sequenced Unstructured Open ended to interviewee’s interests Semi-structured Preferred- a set of questions that allows free answers

Surveys Questionnaires Closed ended questions Open ended questions Relatively simple and straightforward Self-reporting might be bias Participants my embellish the truth Questions need to be planned carefully so they generate valid data

Observations Naturalistic Started with animal studies now applied to human behaviour Use video and audio recordings Challenges include Researcher bias Inter-observer reliability Reactivity (behaviour changes because they are being observed Choice of covert and overt observations

Non-Participant Observations Researcher not part of the group Participants might display reactivity Researcher bias can occur Participant Observations Researcher becomes part of the group Uses both overt and covert methods of observation Must maintain a balance between being a participant and an observer

Case Studies Grounded in real life Provided insight into a specific phenomena Individual or group behaviour Focuses on limited aspect of behaviour Lots of detail Various methods are used to collect data leads to triangulation Case studies use all three “lens” biological, cognitive and sociocultural Can not be replicated as each case is unique

Ethics in Qualitative Informed consent and confidentiality apply to qualitative research questions