Chapter 1 Understanding Ancient America

Archaeology and History Archaeologists and historians share a desire to learn about people who lived in the past, but they employ different methods to inform their interpretations and to arrive at their conclusions. Archaeologists depend on physical objects for their evidence; historians rely on written records. Archaeology can tell us a great deal about the lives of humans who inhabited the world before the invention of writing.

The First Americans Pangaea and Continental Drift—Before human evolution, continents of North and South America were detached from the common landmass of Pangaea. Migration across Beringia—Two factors made migration possible; first, people adapted to the frigid climate; second glaciation caused the sea level to drop so that people could cross the land bridge of Beringia between Siberia and Alaska. Paleo-Indians—Archaeologists call the first migrants Paleo-Indians; they traveled to North America in small bands looking for wildlife to hunt.

Paleo-Indian Hunters Abundance of Game—The abundance of game animals made hunting easy; Paleo-Indians traveled along the eastern side of Canada’s Rocky Mountains or traveled by boat along the Pacific Coast; they migrated to the tip of South America. Big-Game Extinction and Changes in Paleo-Indian Way of Life—About 11,000 BP (before present), large mammals became extinct, probably due to warming climates and perhaps overhunting; to compensate, Paleo-Indian hunters preyed on smaller animals and dedicated more energy to foraging—collecting bugs, berries, and fruits; changes produced great cultural diversity.

Archaic Hunters and Gatherers After the extinction of mammoths Archaic Indians/Great Plains Bison Hunters hunted with Folsom points, hunters moved frequently with their prey and developed trapping techniques to kill large numbers of animals with spears. Later around AD 500—Bows and arrows reached hunters from the north which largely replaced spears Hunters could shoot animals from farther away; weapons were easier to make and less costly to lose; Paleo-Indians did not have access to horses.

Great Basin Cultures: Varying Zones of Habitation These Indians lived in lived between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, an area of environmental diversity that featured hot deserts, rainy marshes, and cold, treeless mountains. Source—Wide variety of animal life, like bison and deer but Great Basin peoples relied on plants as their most important food source; plants were easier to collect and store to prevent shortages caused by lack of rain. such adaptations allowed Great Basin peoples to maintain their hunter-gatherer lifestyle for centuries after Europeans arrived in AD 1492.

Pacific Coast Cultures California Peoples: Chumash—Emerged about 5000 BP near Santa Barbara; had many violent clashes over acorns, their primary food source. Northwest Peoples—Built permanent villages; caught whales and fish for food; developed sophisticated woodworking skills and made carvings and canoes; warfare occurred over fishing sites

Eastern Woodland Cultures: Archaic Peoples Forest Environment—Some archaic peoples settled east of the Mississippi River in a forest environment. This included the major river valleys of Ohio, Mississippi, Tennessee and Cumberland. Woodland peoples hunted deer as their most important source of food, clothing (skins), and weapons (bones); settlements usually had 25 to 150 people; burial sites suggest Woodland people lived about eighteen years. Agriculture and Pottery—Around 4000 BP, Woodland cultures added agriculture and pottery; grew gourds, pumpkins, sunflowers, and tobacco; corn became a significant food crop; still relied on wild plants, seeds, and nuts primarily; pottery originated in Mexico; heavy pots were not good for nomads, but for settled Woodland people, pots worked better than fragile, leaky baskets.

Southwestern and Western Peoples Large Populations—Included about a quarter of all native North Americans; descended from Mogollan, Hohokam, and Anasazi; lived in settled agricultural communities, many of them pueblos.

Cultural Similarities 1. Gathering Techniques and Agriculture—All native North Americans depended on hunting and gathering for a major portion of food; most also practiced agriculture; some used agriculture to supplement hunting and gathering, for others it was the other way around. 2. Bows, Arrows, Weapons for Hunting and Warfare—All native North Americans used these items. 3. Absence of Writing; Other Forms of Human Expression— None used writing, but Native Americans still expressed themselves through drawings, basket weaving, pottery, beadwork, songs, dances, religious ceremonies, and burial rites.

More similarities 4. Adaptation to Natural and Social Environments—Adapted to natural environment without European conventions like wheels, sailing ships, or domesticated animals; did not live in complete peace, however; conflict occurred between and among tribes; some Native Americans, such as those who lived at Cahokia, practiced human sacrifice. 5. Manipulation of the Environment to Meet Needs—Dwellings altered landscape; gathering techniques shifted the balance of local plants toward useful varieties; used fire to clear land for planting corn. 6. Fire as a Hunting Tool—Fires forced buffalo together and deer to race out from burning underbrush, which made them easier to slaughter; Indians also used fire to clear entangling underbrush from forests, which encouraged the growth of tender young plants; attracting deer and other game.

The Mexica: A Mesoamerican Culture 1. Large, Diverse Population—Mexican (Europeans called them Aztecs) Empire stretched from coast to coast across central Mexico; population between 8 million and 25 million people; built enormous monuments; we know more about them because of the notes of Spanish conquistadors; by the 1490s, the Mexica ruled an empire that covered more land than Spain and Portugal combined and contained almost three times as many people. 2. Culture Based on War—Mexica worshipped the war god Huitzilopochtli; warriors held the highest positions in social hierarchy; young men hoped to rise in social class by fighting; capturing prisoners was considered the ultimate act of bravery; Mexican priests sacrificed prisoners by cutting out their hearts, believing it fed the sun’s craving for blood.

The Mexica: A Mesoamerican Culture continued 3. Power and Wealth in Mexican Empire—Collected tribute from subjected people; tribute paid in goods, not money; tribute collection reflected the fact that the relatively small nobility of Mexican warriors and the even smaller priesthood commanded the obedience of millions of people; Mexican elite redistributed wealth from the poor to the rich; led to the incredible achievements of the Mexicans, such as huge cities and temples. 4. Conquered Peoples Not Assimilated—Focus on tribute and conquest caused resentment among people who did not feel Mexican rule was legitimate or equitable; Spanish manipulated this resentment after AD 1492 to conquer the Mexica.