CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Lesson 7. ASSESSMENT OF SUITABLE ELEMENTS TO BE PRESERVED. Areas assessment. Species assessment. Lesson 8. DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS. Types of protected areas in Spain. Design of protected areas. Management of protected areas. Ecological restoration. Lesson 9. SPECIES MANAGEMENT. Threat factors and resources management. In situ management. Ex-situ management.

Habitat loss: The main consequence of environmental degradation is the loss of habitat for the species. When a species does not have its suitable corresponding habitat, its possibilities of survival (fitness, adaptive value) are limited. For stenoic species (which are adapted to very specific environmental conditions) their survival is seriously affected. When species are eurioic (adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions) they can be even favored HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Alteración de las interacciones bióticas The degradation of ecosystems always lead to alterations of biotic interactions and therefore the equilibrium of the system. Although the species is not directly affected, certainly others that depends or that depend on it, may be affected. This is particularly serious in the case of key species in the ecosystem. If this species is particularly affected by degradation, the whole ecosystem will be degraded HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Limitation on the reproduction and dispersal Ecosystem degradation and loss of population elements (reduction in population or range) always leads to problems in the regeneration and dispersal of species. By reducing the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, the species may suffer inbreeding depression. Reproduction and dispersal of species may be affected by environmental stress or barriers generated by fragmentation. Example: roads, tourism, noise, pollution, etc HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Daños colaterales Los hábitats degradados (fragmentación, contaminación, etc…) son más sensibles a: ◦ Plagas y enfermedades. Especialmente aquellas asociadas a la actividad humana y derivadas de especies domésticas. ◦ Incendios. En general, los ecosistemas maduros son bastante resistentes al fuego. Sin embargo, los hábitats muy degradados suelen albergar especies pirofíticas que fomentan los incendios forestales. ◦ Especies oportunistas. Estas especies son habituales en la mayoría de los ecosistemas. Suelen ser especies eurioicas que aprovechan la degradación para aumentar su población. ◦ Especies exóticas invasoras. Las especies foráneas tienen escasas posibilidades de prosperar en un ecosistema maduro y bien formado. Cuando se degrada, estas especies pueden prosperar más fácilmente. ◦ Fricción con otras actividades humanas. Cualquier otra actividad humana, distinta a aquella que genera la degradación, afecta más al ecosistema cuando este está muy degradado HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Fragmentation and impedance Ecosystem degradation always leads to problems of fragmentation of the ecosystem. The fragments are in an hostile matrix with land use that often affect natural species. This fragmentation increases the edge effect. In some cases, the fragments are so small that the edge effect reaches all points of the polygon (there is no core). Some elements of the matrix has a very high impedance (permeability resistance) and limit the displacement of species. Example: highways, railways HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Fahrig L. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst :487–515

Species loss: extinction Species loss is the end result of degradation and loss of habitat. At first, the species begin to suffer threats that do not guarantee its survival if appropriate measures are not taken: endangered species (IUCN categories, When the pressures on the environment are continuous and irreversible, the species may become extinct in the wild HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Other consequences: The list is endless and consequences is the subject of many investigations into the science of conservation biology. Other consequences of environmental degradation would be: ◦ Erosion and soil compaction. Environmental degradation often leads to erosion problems in the long term that prevent regeneration of the environment. Human activity also tends to cause compaction problems (rural ways, vehicles, etc.) which prevents the development of species. ◦ Change in albedo. Changes in land use cause a change in albedo. These changes affect the climate globally due to the change in radiation reflectivity. ◦ Changes in atmospheric composition: CO 2, O 2, H 2 O, etc. In the long term, the atmospheric composition is modified by altering the environment. This change is also responsible, to a lesser extent, of certain environmental issues such as global warming. Example: deforestation and increased CO HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LOST. Consequences Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Sea level rise. Alteration of the phenology. Ocean acidification. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Impact on photosynthesis BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Sea level rise. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Current greenhouse gas concentrations (tropospheric) Gas Pre-1750Recent Absolute increase since 1750 Percentage increase since 1750 Increased radiative forcing (W/m 2 ) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )280 ppm392.6 ppm112.6 ppm40.2%1.85 Methane (CH 4 )700 ppb 1874 ppb / 1758 ppb 1174 ppb / 1058 ppb 167.7% / 151.1% 0.51 Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)270 ppb 324 ppb /323 ppb 54 ppb / 53 ppb 20.0% / 19.6% 0.18 Tropospheric ozone (O 3 )25 ppb34 ppb9 ppb36%0.35

The World's Carbon Reservoirs

Human Perturbations to the Global Carbon Budget

The Global Warming Sceptic

comparison: Glacier Bay National Park and Reserve's White Thunder Ridge as seen on August 13, 1941 (left) and August 31, 2004 (right).

A NASA study published last January in the Journal of Climate shows that the oldest and thickest Arctic sea ice is disappearing at a faster rate than the younger, thinner ice at the edges of the Arctic Ocean's floating ice cap. Images show the ice cap in 1980 and in / NASA

National snow and and Ice data center

The Netherlands above and below sealevel © Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Watermanagement

Lengthening: 40 m per year!!!

Gilman, E., et al Pacific Island Mangroves in a Changing Climate and Rising Sea. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No UNEP, Regional Seas Programme, Nairobi, KENYA.

Sea level rise. Ocean acidification. Impact on photosynthesis. Alteration of the phenology and loss of synchronicity. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Ocean acidification Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. CO 2 and pH in Pacific north

Human Perturbations to the Global Carbon Budget

OCEAN ACIDIFICATION Average surface ocean pH TimepH pH change Source H + concentration change relative to pre-industrial Pre-industrial (18th century) Analysed/field0% Recent past (1990s) 8.104−0.075field % Present levels 8.069−0.11field % 2050 (2×CO 2 = 560 ppm) 7.949−0.230model % 2100 (IS92a) 7.824−0.355model %

Carbonate system of seawater CO 2 (aq) + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 HCO 3 − + H + CO 3 2− + 2 H +. Carbonic acid BicarbonateCarbonate

CO 2 (aq) + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 HCO 3 − + H + CO 3 2− + 2 H +. Dissolving CO2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean:

Limacina helicina (Antartic snail)

Fig. 4. Summary of effects of acidification among key taxonomic groups. Effects are represented as either mean percent (+) increase or percent (-) decrease in a given response. FROM: KRISTY J. KROEKER, et al. Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming. Global Change Biology (2013), doi: /gcb

Overview/C0 2 in the Ocean 1.About a third of the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) released by the burning of fossil fuels currently ends up in the ocean. 2.Absorbed CO 2 forms carbonic acid in seawater, lowering the prevailing pH level (which is slightly alkaline) and changing the balance of carbonate and bicarbonate ions. 3.The shift toward acidity makes it more difficult for marine creatures to build hard parts out of calcium carbonate. The decline in pH thus threatens a variety of organisms, including corals, which provide one of the richest habitats on earth. 4.Within a century, the surface of the Southern Ocean will become corrosive to the shells of tiny snails that form a key link in the marine food chain within this highly productive zone.

March 2013

August 2011

Sea level rise. Ocean acidification. Impact on photosynthesis. Alteration of the phenology and loss of synchronicity. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

The reaction

Photosynthesis – Respiration - Combustion Photosynthesis CO 2 + H 2 O + sunlight -> CH 2 O + O 2 Respiration O 2 + CH 2 O -> energy + H 2 O + CO 2 Combustion O 2 + hydrocarbons -> energy + H 2 O + CO 2

PHOTOSYNTHESIS VS. RESPIRATION

C3 AND C4 RESPONSES

Sea level rise. Ocean acidification. Impact on photosynthesis. Alteration of the phenology and loss of synchronicity. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Alteration of the phenology. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Phenology is generally described as “the art of observing life cycle phases or activities of plants and animals in their temporal occurrence throughout the year” (Lieth 1974). Lieth H (1974) Phenology and seasonality modelling. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Alteration of the phenology. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Cotton P.A Avian migration phenology and global climate change. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 100, 12219–12222

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Alteration of the phenology. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

Sea level rise. Ocean acidification. Impact on photosynthesis. Alteration of the phenology and lost of synchronicity. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Climate determines where animals and plants can live.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Climate determines where animals and plants can live. When climate change: adapt, move or die. Species’ range shift over time to track suitable climate. This process takes a long time. Many studies suggest that global warming is driving species ranges poleward and toward higher elevations. Range shift could be complicated in overexploited and degraded habitats. The speed of the shift may be too fast for the dispersal capacity of many species. High latitude and mountain forests will be seriously affected. Stenoic and low dispersal capacity species would require a specific management to face this fast shift.

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions. Cork oak, past and present distribution modelling

6.3. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration. Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

The potential impact of global change on the distribution of Pinus sylvestris L., P. nigra Arnold and Abies pinsapo Boiss. In the baetic range (Andalusia, Spain): a high resolution predictive model 6.2. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.

2 nd International Conference of Plant Biodiversity March 2014 Marrakech 6.2. BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE. Altitudinal and latitudinal migration Lesson 6. CAUSES OF EXTINCTION. Habitat degradation and lost. Biological impacts of Climate change. Overexploitation. Species invasions.