1. MACROECONOMICS Lecture Notes These slides incorporate the Addison Wesley Graphs. The graphs are copyrighted by Addison Wesley. © O. Mikhail, January 2002.

2. Slide 2 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Part I – Chapters 1, 2 and 3. Introduction and Measurements Economics Microeconomics The study of individual economic decision making. Macroeconomics The study of aggregate economic variables. The study of the behavior of large collections of economic agents.

3. Macroeconomics models based on Microeconomic principles.

4. Slide 4 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Introduction Chapter 1

5. Slide 5 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Plan What is Macroeconomics? Phenomena of interest and historical events: Economic Growth (Long-Run)  The increase in productive capacity and average standard of living. Measured by the trend. Business Cycles (Short-Run)  The short-run ups and down, booms and recessions. Measured by deviations from the trend. Building Macro models. Issues of disagreement in Macro.

6. Slide 6 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Macroeconomic Questions (WHY ?) Why are some countries rich while others are poor? In terms of standard of living; are you better off than your parents/grand-parents? Why are there fluctuations in aggregate economic activity? If you can understand these fluctuations, is there any way to avoid them?

7. Slide 7 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Macroeconomic Focus Aggregate behavior of consumers and firms. The behavior and influence of the government on overall economic activity. For example, the effects of fiscal and monetary policies. The overall level of economic activity in individual countries.

8. Slide 8 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. HOW ? Theoretical Models Consist of Descriptions of consumers and firms Their objectives and constraints Resources available How they interact (relationships) Outcome: Prediction regarding overall economic activity Real Life Data Long-Run Growth Business Cycles ???

9. Slide 9 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Definitions Gross Domestic Product (GDP)  quantity of goods and services produced in the United States. Gross National Product (GNP)  quantity of goods and services produced by US residents. To compare across countries: GDP per capita = GDP / Population

10. Slide 10 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-1 GDP and GNP

11. Slide 11 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-1 Per Capita Real GNP (in1992 dollars) for the United States in the Twentieth Century Sustained Growth 5 times richer over 97 years Not steady growth Sustained Growth 5 times richer over 97 years Not steady growth Average income for an American is $27,000 in 1992 dollars

12. Slide 12 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-2 Natural Logarithm of Per Capita GNP Notes on natural log: 1)Exponential trend 2) Units of measure Notes on natural log: 1)Exponential trend 2) Units of measure

13. Slide 13 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Decomposition of GDP and Models GDP Trend Long-Run Growth GROWTH MODELS Deviations from Trend Business Cycles SHORT-RUN MODELS MODELS

14. Slide 14 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-3 Natural Logarithm of Per Capita GNP and Trend Slope of the trend line is a good approximation of the growth rate log y t – log y t-1  g t Slope of the trend line is a good approximation of the growth rate log y t – log y t-1  g t

15. Slide 15 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-4 Percentage Deviations from Trend in Per Capita GNP Business Cycles Peak Trough

16. Slide 16 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Building a Model (The Art of War) Consumers and firms (representative) Set of goods (one good) Consumers preferences (utility) Technology available (production function) Resources available (constraints) Nature of the market (competitive) Behavior of agents (optimization)

17. Slide 17 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Building a Model (Flavors) The setup Investment and saving. Government spending and taxes. International and exchange rates (open economy). Money supply and inflation. One traded good or many goods. Nature of market: competitive, monopoly or oligopoly. Markets clear or not.

18. Slide 18 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Outcome of the Model Ask the model questions: For which we know the answers Does the economy grow in a manner that matches the data? For which we do not know the answers How much growth had the level of government spending been higher? or lower?

19. Slide 19 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Why Microeconomic Principles? Changes in government policy, may alter the behavior of consumers and firms and consequently the behavior of the economy as a whole. The Lucas Critique (1976) introduced macro models based on micro principles.

20. Slide 20 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Disagreement in Macro (The Fight) Economic Growth Models Little disagreement Based on Robert Solow’s model Business Cycles Models Keynesian Theory (John Maynard Keynes) Money Surprise Theory (Milton Friedman and Robert Lucas) Real Business Cycle Theory (Edward Prescott and Finn Kydland) Keynesian Coordination Failure Theory

21. Understanding Recent and Current Macroeconomic Events

22. Slide 22 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Seven Issues 1. Productivity Slowdown 2. Taxes, Gov spending and deficit 3. Inflation 4. Interest rates 5. Energy prices 6. Trade and twin deficits 7. Unemployment

23. Slide 23 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Productivity  average labor productivity = Y / N where Y refers to aggregate output (GDP) and N denotes employment. It is the output per worker. For example, in a one good economy, 10 chocolate bars per worker or 12 chocolate bars per worker. Why Important? Economic growth theory points to growth in productivity as an important reason for growth in living standards in the LONG-RUN.

24. Slide 24 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5 Natural Logarithm of Average Labor Productivity Slope of the trend line denotes the growth rate Can you explain why? Slope of the trend line denotes the growth rate Can you explain why? Using ECN growth theory, try to understand why? Once understood, then we can avoid any future slowdown.

25. Slide 25 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Explaining Productivity Slowdown 1. Costs of adjusting to new technology. 2. Reflects measurement bias problem. 3. Any other suggestion ???

26. Slide 26 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6 Total Taxes (black line) and Total Government Spending (colored line) in the United States (federal, state and local) as Percentages of GPD Trend reflects: 1.Increase in the size of the government? 2.Importance of the government to overall ECN activity? Trend reflects: 1.Increase in the size of the government? 2.Importance of the government to overall ECN activity?

27. Slide 27 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-7 The Total Government Surplus (Government Saving) in the US, as a % of GDP. Deficit Surplus 1999: 2 % Largest in 1975

28. Slide 28 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Effects of the deficit depend on the source Deficit due to: 1. Lower taxes Implies higher future taxes. Ricardian Equivalence theorem: Under some conditions, government deficits do not matter. 2. Higher spending Implies crowding out of private spending.

29. Slide 29 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-8 Inflation and Money (M1) Growth Inflation ( π t )  (P t - P t-1 ) / P t-1 In the long run (trend), inflation is caused by growth in the money supply

30. Slide 30 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-9 The Nominal Interest Rate (91-day U.S. Treasury bills) and the Inflation Rate

31. Slide 31 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Real (r) and Nominal (R) interest rates r  R – π e ECN decisions depend on the real interest rates. Market forces determine the real interest rates.

32. Slide 32 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10 Real Interest Rate What does a negative r mean? r  R – π

33. Slide 33 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-11 The Relative Price of Energy, Measured as the Producer Price index of Petroleum Products Divided by the Consumer Price Index Higher energy prices imply higher cost for production and lower productivity Is it a good predictor for future economic downturns?

34. Slide 34 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-12 Percentage Deviations from Trend in Real GDP Compare to slide #14 Compare downturns with previous slide

35. Slide 35 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-13 Exports and Imports of Goods and Services for the United States, as Percentages of GDP

36. Slide 36 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Current Account Surplus Current Account Surplus (CA) = net exports (exports minus imports) + net factor payments (net income to domestic residents from abroad) CA  NX (because net factor payments is small)

37. Slide 37 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-14 Net Exports

38. Slide 38 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Current Account Deficit It is important when financed by borrowing. 1. To smooth consumption 2. If borrowing is used to add to the nation’s productive capacity Short-run borrowing for higher future living standards.

39. Slide 39 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Twin Deficits (mid-to-late 1980s) Government Budget Deficit Current Account Deficit Whenever borrowing is done from abroad.

40. Slide 40 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-15 The Unemployment Rate in the United States, 1948-1999 UE rate = # Unemployed / # Labor Force RECESSION

41. Slide 41 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Explaining UE 1. Aggregate ECN activity (countercyclical) 2. Structure of population (baby boom) 3. Government intervention (insurance system) 4. Sectoral shifts (acquiring new skills)

42. Slide 42 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-16 Deviations from Trend in the Unemployment Rate (black line) and Percentage Deviations from Trend in Real GDP (colored line)

43. Slide 43 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. To do list Can you build a ‘good’ macroeconomic model that explains current and historical economic activity?

44. Slide 44 Copyright © 2002 by O. Mikhail, Graphs are © by Pearson Education, Inc. ASSIGNMENT Graph Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) in 1996 dollars, for 1947 and thereafter. Using the Consumer Price Index (CPI) as a measure of the price level, graph the annual inflation rate for 1948 to 1999.