1. UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE SKILLS CHAPTER 2 AP ENVIRONMENTAL

2. HISTORY OF SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Ancient Egyptians - Used scientific observations to determine when to plant crops or how to predict human events using astronomical signs rooted in religion Ancient Greeks -Theoretical approach to science. “Knowing for the sake of knowing” by asking “Why” or “For what purpose?” 1500’s-1600’s -Development of the scientific method by Gilbert, Galileo and Harvey to ask “How do things work”

3. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Science is a continually evolving process that leads to generalizations, conclusions, and theories that can always be changed with additional information Science does not provide a final answer to unknowns Science can be frustrating because of changing scientific conclusions. Examples: What diet is best? What chemicals are cancerous?

4. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS The scientific method was first described by Francis Bacon in 1620 During the medieval period people believed that disease arose from one of the four humors Bacon argued that all assumptions needed to be “weighed with the truthfulness of knowledge”. He believed that everything should be held in doubt until proven by observation with the five senses.

5. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS The scientific method proposed by Bacon stated that in order to test potential truths (hypotheses) scientists had to devise experiments that would manipulate nature in attempts to prove their hypothesis wrong He suggested that variables had to be isolated and data collected and analyzed using a systematic process He also said that nothing could be considered a truth until the experiments could be consistently repeated with the same results

6. SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Today the standard for measuring the validity of a scientific concept is whether or not the concept can be disproved As a rule, if you can devise a test that would disprove a statement then it can be considered scientific (Reference diagram: figure 2.3) Does not include religious, aesthetic or moral views because they are based on faith, belief, cultural or personal choices

7. ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE Events in nature follow patterns. These patterns and the rules that describe them are the same throughout the universe Principle of Uniformitarianism Popularized by James Hutton and Charles Lyell States that the processes that shape the Earth today are the same processes that occurred millions of years ago and could be found on other planets throughout the universe

8. ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE Science is based on inductive reasoning. Induction begins with specific observations and then leads to generalizations based on those observations

9. ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE Generalizations can be subjected to tests to disprove them if they are scientific. Science can never provide absolute proof of its theories.

10. SCIENTIFIC PROOF Proof in mathematics: Uses deductive reasoning that tries to make a connection between a premise(assumption) and a conclusion Does not require a premise to be true, only a foolproof reasoning Example: Premise: A straight line is the distance between two points. Premise: The line from A to B is the shortest distance between points A and B. Conclusion: Therefore, the line from A to B is a straight line.

11. SCIENTIFIC PROOF Proof in Science: Uses observations Conclusions are only as true as their premises Requires logical reasoning and correct premises Generalizations made this way have a high degree of probability unless proven otherwise Premise: Humans are the only toolmaking organisms Premise: The woodpecker finch uses tools Conclusion: Therefore, the woodpecker finch is a human being Scientific Reasoning concludes: If humans are the only toolmaking organisms and the woodpecker finch uses tools, then the woodpecker finch is a human being

12. SCIENTIFIC PROOF Science is not limited just to inductive reasoning, it can also be deductive if the situation requires it. New advancements begin with insight (leaps of imagination based on a foundation of knowledge) and then attempts are made to prove them through inductive reasoning

13. SCIENTIFIC NUMBERS Quantitative representations of data used to build relationships between data sets All scientific measurements are made using the International System of measurement (SI or metric system) All measurements are approximations because of the factors of uncertainty What are some of the sources of uncertainty in measurements?

14. SCIENTIFIC NUMBERS Precision vs. Accuracy

15. SCIENTIFIC SKILLS Scientific reasoning is based on observation and inferences Observations use the 5 senses and/or tools to describe something Inferences are generalizations that can be made based on observations

16. SCIENTIFIC SKILLS Once an inference is made, if it is testable it can become a hypothesis Hypothesis format: If…independent variable, then…dependent variable. Manipulated by scientistMeasured response

17. SCIENTIFIC SKILLS Variables in an experiment have to be described in a way that would allow them to be understood by all scientists. This is called their operational definition. Once an experiment has begun data must be collected to show the relationship between the independent variable (input) and dependent variable (output) This information is recorded in either quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical) form

18. MODERN SCIENTIFIC METHOD Make observations and ask a question Develop a tentative answer (hypothesis) Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis Collect data in an organized formInterpret the data Draw conclusions and compare to the original hypothesis Complete additional tests/observations if necessary

19. ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS The way that scientists attempt to answer environmental questions often has to use a creative take on the standard scientific method Environmental questions can deal with processes that occur over long periods of time or organisms that are hard to control within an experiment The California Condor breeding program captured all wild condors and bred them for reintroduction into the wild once numbers increased. None of the re- introduced birds however were able to find their own food.

20. ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS Alternative approaches: Historical evidence is used in cases of research into a process or pattern that has occurred over a long period of time. This evidence is drawn from past reports or evidence left behind within the environment.

21. ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS Modern Catastrophes and Disturbances can create a one time large scale experiment for studying events and processes that relate to things like volcanism, tectonic movement, etc.

22. ENVIRONMENTAL DECISIONS Once information has been gathered about an issue or an environmental concept the next step is usually to decide on some sort of action Decision making on environmental issues has to balance environmental needs, social needs and economic needs

23. ENVIRONMENTAL DECISIONS Standard decision making process: 1.Formulate clear statement of the issue 2.Gather scientific information 3.List alternative courses of action 4.Predict consequences and probabilities of each action 5.Weigh alternatives and decide

24. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Science is a search for understanding while technology seeks to apply scientific knowledge for the benefits of humans Science can be both driven and limited by technology Technology can have both positive and negative effects

25. SCIENCE AND MEDIA Media coverage of scientific discoveries has become a bigger issue because of the accessibility of information and the numerous media platforms that post information All publications of scientific discoveries have to be analyzed for the validity of their claims and the sources that have provided the information

26. SCIENCE AND MEDIA To determine the validity of a scientific article you must: Identify the author or group that published the article Find the origin for the claims being made Identify the sources used to provide information about the claims (preferably more than one) Research contradictory evidence Research any evidence of bias from the author Determine if the reasoning presented is logical

27. SCIENCE AND OBJECTIVITY MYTH: Scientists rely only on the facts Scientists like all people have influences in their lives that spill over into their work. Do not simply trust information presented because it comes from a scientific source. Use your own background knowledge and research into the information to determine if there is any bias or false information.

28. LEARNING SCIENCE Learn science in the active mode. Listen critically and be critical of what you see and read. Try to understand what science is and apply it to environmental science concepts. Make connections among the facts presented instead of focusing on rote memorization.

29. LEARNING SCIENCE “You cannot understand science and its relation to anything unless you understand and appreciate it as the great adventure of our time.” “The imagination of nature is far, far greater than the imagination of man.” -Richard Feynman