1. These slides are optimized for PowerPoint versions 12 (2007/2008) and 14 (2010/2011). If viewed in earlier versions of PowerPoint, some slides may not display properly. TEN STEPS TO ADVANCING COLLEGE READING SKILLS This presentation should be viewed in “Slide Show” view to display properly. Use the tab key, space bar, arrow keys, or page up/down to move through the slides. [Mac: Go to “Slide Show” pulldown menu and click on “Play from Start.”] [PC: Go to “Slide Show” tab and click on “From beginning.”] Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

2. TEN STEPS TO ADVANCING COLLEGE READING SKILLS SIXTH EDITION John Langan Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

3. 10 Critical Reading Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

4. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Skilled readers are those who can recognize an author’s point and the support for that point. Critical readers are those who can evaluate an author’s support for a point and determine whether that support is solid or not. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

5. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in three ways: Separating fact from opinion Detecting propaganda Recognizing errors in reasoning Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

6. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

7. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion This personals ad appeared in a retirement community newspaper in Florida. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

8. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. Which statements in this ad are facts? Which are opinions? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

9. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Facts: Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

10. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Opinions: Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

11. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

12. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Fact A fact is information that can be proved true through objective evidence. This evidence may be physical proof or the spoken or written testimony of witnesses. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

13. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. Facts: These facts can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true. / Fact Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

14. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact Here is a statement that is a fact. The fact can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true. My grandfather has eleven toes. Someone can check this fact by counting grandpa’s toes. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

15. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact Here is another statement of fact: In 1841, William Henry Harrison served as president of the United States for only thirty- one days; he died of pneumonia. We can check history records to confirm that this is true. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

16. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Opinion An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that cannot be objectively proved true. As a result, it is open to question. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

17. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. FOXY LADY. Blue-haired beauty, 80s, slim 5'4" (used to be 5'6"). Widow who has just buried fourth husband. Has original teeth and new parts including hip, knee, cornea, and valves. A groovy chick who is still the life of the party. Opinions: We have no way of knowing for sure if these descriptions are true. These statements are opinions. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

18. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion Here is a statement that is an opinion: My grandfather’s feet are ugly. There’s no way to prove this statement because two people can look at the same thing and come to different conclusions about its beauty. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

19. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion My grandfather’s feet are ugly. Ugly is a value word, a word we use to express a value judgment. Value or judgment words are signals that an opinion is being expressed. By their very nature, these words represent opinions, not facts. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

20. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion Here is another opinion: Harrison should never have been elected president in the first place. Those who voted for him would not have agreed. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

21. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Five Points about Fact and Opinion 1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue. Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not unusual for evidence to show that a “fact” is not really true. For example, it was once considered to be a fact that the world was flat, but that “fact” turned out to be an error. / Five Points about Fact and Opinion Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

22. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often represent opinions. Examples of Value Words Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

23. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion Value words often express judgments—they are generally subjective, not objective. While factual statements report on observed reality, subjective statements interpret reality. For example, the observation that it is raining outside is an objective one. The statement that the weather is bad, however, is subjective, an evaluation of reality. (Some people—for example, farmers whose crops need water— consider rain to be good weather.) 2 Value words Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

24. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions. Those words introduce what some people think should, or ought to, be done. Other people may disagree. Couples with young children should not be allowed to divorce. Examples Parents who abuse their children ought to be put in jail. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

25. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 4 Don’t mistake widely held opinions for facts. Much information that sounds factual is really opinion. A politician may claim that he fights for working-class people, a statement that at first seems factual. But what is meant by fights? If the politician’s voting record shows that he voted “yes” on tax cuts for the wealthy and “no” on raising the minimum wage, you might not agree that he has working-class people’s interests at heart. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

26. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion 5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion. Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion and to arrive at an informed opinion. The reality is that most of what matters in life is very complex and cannot be separated into simple fact and opinion. Our challenge always is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

27. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion Fact and Opinion in Reading The amount of fact and opinion in a piece of writing varies, depending on the author’s purpose. For example, textbooks, news articles and scientific reports, which are written to inform readers, are supposed to be as factual as possible. On the other hand, the main points of editorials, political speeches, and advertisements—materials written to persuade readers—are opinions. Such writings may contain facts, but, in general, they are facts carefully selected to back up the authors’ opinions. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

28. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than before. B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

29. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than before. B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant. Item A is a statement of fact. It can be verified by checking medical statistics. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

30. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? A. It is riskier for a woman to have a first child after age 40 than before. B. It is stupid for women over 40 to get pregnant. This is an opinion. Some people might admire the woman who has children in her 40s. The word stupid is a value word. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

31. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading cause of death (after car accidents and homicides). B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility for not recognizing signs of teenage depression. C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves, and many of these deaths could be easily prevented. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

32. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading cause of death (after car accidents and homicides). B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility for not recognizing signs of teenage depression. C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves, and many of these deaths could be easily prevented. All the details in statement A are facts that can be confirmed by looking them up in public records. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

33. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? A. Among Americans aged 10 to 24, suicide is the third-leading cause of death (after car accidents and homicides). B. It’s a fact that parents and teachers must bear the responsibility for not recognizing signs of teenage depression. C. Each year, more than 1,600 American teenagers kill themselves, and many of these deaths could be easily prevented. Statement B is an opinion. Just saying that something is a fact doesn’t make it so. Studies show that there are often no warning signs of teenage depression. Even when there are signs, the extent of adult responsibility is a matter of opinion. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

34. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion? Which is fact and opinion? The first part of the sentence is a fact that can be confirmed by checking records on teen suicides. The second part is an opinion: easily is a judgment word— people may differ on how easy or difficult they consider something to be. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

35. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

36. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,” “Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

37. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are constantly promoting their points: “Buy our product,” “Believe what I say,” and “Vote for me.” Often, they lack adequate factual support for their points, so they appeal to our emotions by using propaganda techniques. Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to recognize these propaganda techniques for the emotional fluff that they are. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

38. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda This section will introduce you to six common propaganda techniques: There are other propaganda techniques, but these six are among the most common. They all use emotional appeals to distract from the fact they are not providing solid evidence to support their points. Bandwagon Testimonial Transfer Plain Folks Name Calling Glittering Generalities Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

39. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 1 Bandwagon The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product or support a certain issue because, in effect, “everybody else is doing it.” Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

40. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda The ads imply that if you don’t jump on the bandwagon, the parade will pass you by. Here are two examples of real ads that have used the bandwagon appeal: A brand of soap used to advertise: “Aren’t you glad you use our soap? Don’t you wish everybody did?” A computer company advertises: “More than half of the companies in North American rely on our computers. Who do you rely on?” / 1 Bandwagon Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

41. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal? A. A magazine ad for Goodbuy Shoes shows a picture of the glamorous movie star Lana Starr. The caption reads: “Why should I spend more when I can get great shoes at Goodbuy?” B. An ad for a car dealer shows cattle stampeding across the plains, while the announcer exclaims, “Everybody is rushing to Town Auto Mall!” Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

42. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal? A. A magazine ad for Goodbuy Shoes shows a picture of the glamorous movie star Lana Starr. The caption reads: “Why should I spend more when I can get great shoes at Goodbuy?” B. An ad for a car dealer shows cattle stampeding across the plains, while the announcer exclaims, “Everybody is rushing to Town Auto Mall!” The car dealer wants us to “join the stampede” to Town Auto Mall. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

43. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 2 Testimonial The idea behind the testimonial approach is that the testimony of famous people influences the viewers that admire these people. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

44. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial The fame of the actress is intended to influence people to buy the yogurt. Similarly, the prestige and power of the senator is intended to make men feel this product will make them powerful, too. Here are two examples of real ads that have used the appeal of testimonials: “This yogurt can help regulate your digestive system in just two weeks,” says a famous actress. “And it tastes great.” A former United States senator and one-time candidate for president promotes a product intended to help a man’s sexual performance. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

45. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial Which ad below uses a testimonial? A. Become one of the millions of satisfied customers who control their weight with our diet shakes. B. A picture of boxing great Muhammad Ali appears on boxes of a breakfast cereal. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

46. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial Which ad below uses a testimonial? A. Become one of the millions of satisfied customers who control their weight with our diet shakes. B. A picture of boxing great Muhammad Ali appears on boxes of a breakfast cereal. We are supposed to believe that Muhammad Ali likes and recommends the cereal, and possibly even that the cereal is responsible for Muhammad Ali’s successes in the ring. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

47. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 3 Transfer The most common type of propaganda technique is transfer, in which products or candidates try to associate themselves with something that people admire or love. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

48. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda The picture you saw at the beginning of this section is an example of transfer. The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings we have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and the U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to vote for him. / 3 Transfer Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

49. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer The sponsor hopes men will feel that, if they use this product, beautiful young women will be attracted to them. Similarly, the candidate hopes we will transfer our positive feelings about family and the American flag to him. Here are two examples of real ads that have used the appeal of tranfer: An ad for a hair color product for men shows a beautiful young woman in a short dress running her fingers through a man’s hair. A candidate for Congress is shown sitting at a desk. Standing on either side of him are his wife and family, and there is an American flag behind him. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

50. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer A. A man dressed as Uncle Sam is shown eating a particular brand of hot dog. B. A magazine ad shows a film star with a milk mustache. The caption reads: “Drink Milk.” Which ad below uses transfer? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

51. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer A. A man dressed as Uncle Sam is shown eating a particular brand of hot dog. B. A magazine ad shows a film star with a milk mustache. The caption reads: “Drink Milk.” Which ad below uses transfer? The hot dog manufacturer wants Americans to transfer the love they feel for their country to a particular brand of hot dog. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

52. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 4 Plain Folks In the plain folks technique, powerful people present themselves as ordinary, average citizens. Political candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly, the presidents of some companies appear in their own ads, trying to show that their giant corporations are just family businesses run by ordinary folks. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

53. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda The chairman and the presidential candidate both want to demonstrate that they are regular, everyday people—just “plain folks” like the rest of us. A presidential candidate is photographed barbecuing ribs and chicken for reporters at his rustic home in the country. Afterward, his wife posts their family recipes on the campaign website. Here are two examples of real ads that have used the appeal of plain folks: The chairman of a poultry company is shown leaning on a rail fence in front of a farmhouse. He says, “I’m proud to uphold the values that go back to our company’s start on my great- grandfather’s farm in 1900.” / 4 Plain Folks Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

54. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks Which ad below uses a plain folks approach? A. A beautiful woman in an elegant white dress and long white gloves is shown sipping a glass of a certain brand of chardonnay wine. B. An average-looking middle-aged couple enjoys an outdoor meal cooked on their new barbecue grill. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

55. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks Which ad below uses a plain folks approach? A. A beautiful woman in an elegant white dress and long white gloves is shown sipping a glass of a certain brand of chardonnay wine. B. An average-looking middle-aged couple enjoys an outdoor meal cooked on their new barbecue grill. If the barbecue grill is favored by ordinary, average citizens just like us, then we’ll like it too. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

56. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 5 Name Calling Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded language or negative comments to turn people against a rival product, candidate, or movement. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

57. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling Clearly the opponents are making negative comments about the candidate. In the second item, saying that other cell phone services will rip you off and drop your calls is making negative comments about them. Here are two examples of name calling taken from real life: The opponents of a political candidate say he is a “spineless jellyfish.” A cell phone service advertises: “Unlike some services, we won’t rip you off with hidden charges or drop your calls.” Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

58. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling A. A famous singer tells a television interviewer that a particular candidate for president is “born to run.” B. A newspaper editorial calls a candidate for town council “a hypocrite and a greedy, ambulance-chasing lawyer.” Which ad below uses name calling? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

59. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling A. A famous singer tells a television interviewer that a particular candidate for president is “born to run.” B. A newspaper editorial calls a candidate for town council “a hypocrite and a greedy, ambulance-chasing lawyer.” Which ad below uses name calling? The editorial is making extremely negative comments about the candidate—literally calling him or her names. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

60. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda 6 Glittering Generalities A glittering generality is an important-sounding but unspecific claim about some product, candidate, or cause. It cannot be proved true or false because no evidence is offered to support the claim. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

61. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities The statements It’s about achieving life and Let yourself shine sound important but say nothing. Here are two examples from real ads that use glittering generalities: A financial advisor says: “True wealth is about more than money. It’s about achieving life.” A magazine ad for a line of women’s clothing advertises: “Let yourself shine.” Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

62. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities A. An ad for a body wash invites the reader to “Shower your skin in luxury.” B. A candidate for the U.S. congress is called “Dr. Millionaire Know- it-all” by his opponent. Which ad below uses a glittering generality? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

63. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda / 6 Glittering Generalities A. An ad for a body wash invites the reader to “Shower your skin in luxury.” B. A candidate for the U.S. congress is called “Dr. Millionaire Know- it-all” by his opponent. Which ad below uses a glittering generality? Other than hinting that the product should be used in the shower, the statement tells us nothing specific about the body wash. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

64. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Detecting Propaganda Recognizing Errors in Reasoning Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place of the real support needed in an argument. The result is a poorly supported argument. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

65. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning A valid point is based on a rock-like foundation of solid support. A fallacious point is based on a house of cards that offers no real support at all. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

66. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning You have already seen two common fallacies that were discussed in Chapter 9, “Argument”: Changing the subject distracts us from the issue by presenting irrelevant support—evidence that actually has nothing to do with the argument. Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point has inadequate support. To draw a conclusion based on insufficient evidence is to make a hasty generalization. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

67. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies: In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no true support is offered for that point. Circular Reasoning Personal Attack Straw Man Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue False Cause False Comparison Either-Or Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

68. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as evidence to support it. The fallacy of including such illogical evidence is called circular reasoning; it is also known as begging the question. Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Circular Reasoning Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

69. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Ms. Jenkins is a great manager because she is so wonderful at managing. The supporting reason (“she is so wonderful at managing”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Ms. Jenkins is a great manager”). No real reasons have been given—the statement has merely been repeated. Here is a simple and obvious example of such reasoning: Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

70. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue The supporting reason (“she is so wonderful at managing”) is really the same as the conclusion (“Ms. Jenkins is a great manager”). No real reasons have been given—the statement has merely been repeated. she is so wonderful at managing Ms. Jenkins is a great manager Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

71. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument? Here is another example of such reasoning: Exercise is healthful, for it improves your well-being. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

72. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Exercise is healthful, for it improves your well-being. The word healthful, which is used in the conclusion, conveys the same idea as well-being. We still don’t know why exercise is good for us. healthful, well-being. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

73. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Can you spot the circular reasoning in this argument? Here is one more example of such reasoning: Censorship is an evil practice because it is so wrong. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

74. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Censorship is an evil practice because it is so wrong. The claim that censorship “is so wrong” simply restates the idea that it is an evil practice. No explanation is given for why censorship is evil or wrong. is an evil is so wrong. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

75. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue A. Sports cars continue to be popular because so many people like them. B. My wife wants to participate in the local amateur theater group, but I don’t want all those actors flirting with her. Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

76. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Circular Reasoning/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue A. Sports cars continue to be popular because so many people like them. B. My wife wants to participate in the local amateur theater group, but I don’t want all those actors flirting with her. Which item contains an example of the circular reasoning fallacy? Saying that many people like sports cars is another way of saying that sports cars are popular. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

77. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Personal Attack This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack on an individual rather than on his or her public ideas. It ignores the issue under discussion and concentrates instead on the character of the opponent. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

78. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue/ Personal Attack The arrest of his son would probably have embarrassed the mayor, but it has nothing to do with the value of his opinions on local crime. Our mayor’s opinions about local crime are worthless. Last week, his own son was arrested for disturbing the peace. Here is an example of personal attack: Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

79. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue/ Personal Attack In fact, McCain and his wife had adopted the girl from an orphanage in Bangladesh. Sometimes personal attacks take the form of undercutting people’s admirable actions. For instance, in the 2000 Republican presidential primary, opponents of Senator John McCain claimed that he had a black daughter whom he had fathered with a black prostitute. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

80. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue/ Personal Attack Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy? A. Mr. Casey was fined for drinking while driving and should not be allowed to teach math. B. Barry cannot make up his mind easily because he is indecisive. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

81. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue/ Personal Attack Which item contains an example of the personal attack fallacy? A. Mr. Casey was fined for drinking while driving and should not be allowed to teach math. B. Barry cannot make up his mind easily because he is indecisive. The statement attacks Casey for his poor judgment about driving, not for his ability to teach math. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

82. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Straw Man The straw man fallacy suggests that an opponent favors an obviously unpopular cause—when the opponent really doesn’t support anything of the kind. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

83. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Straw Man/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue The candidate does not support having “fewer police officers.” Her plan calls for reducing taxes by privatizing the city’s trash collection, not by reducing the police force. The candidate for mayor says she’ll cut taxes, but do you really want fewer police officers protecting your city? Here is an example of straw man. It is a statement made during a political debate between two candidates. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

84. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Straw Man/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy? A. The school board is considering building a swimming pool, but I don’t like the idea of kids hanging out there all day and neglecting their studies. B. Pearl is a poor choice for the position of salesperson—she’s a lesbian. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

85. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Straw Man/ Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue Which item contains an example of the straw man fallacy? A. The school board is considering building a swimming pool, but I don’t like the idea of kids hanging out there all day and neglecting their studies. B. Pearl is a poor choice for the position of salesperson—she’s a lesbian. The school board is not advocating that kids hang out all day and neglect their studies. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

86. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning The fallacy of false cause occurs when one assumes that because event B follows event A, event B was caused by event A. Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue False Cause Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

87. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / False Cause/ Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue Event A:Paul Hamilton became manager. Event B:The baseball team is losing games. Consider this argument: The baseball team was doing well before Paul Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the cause of the decline. However, Paul Hamilton has been manager for only a year. What other possible causes could have been responsible for the team’s losses? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

88. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / False Cause/ Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue The baseball team was doing well before Paul Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the cause of the decline. Event A:Paul Hamilton became manager. Event B:The baseball team is losing games. However, Paul Hamilton has been manager for only a year. What other possible causes could have been responsible for the team’s losses? Perhaps the salary policies of the team’s owner have deprived the team of some needed new talent. Perhaps several key players are now past their prime. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

89. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / False Cause/ Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue The baseball team was doing well before Paul Hamilton became manager. Clearly, he is the cause of the decline. Event A:Paul Hamilton became manager. Event B:The baseball team is losing games. It’s easy but dangerous to assume that just because A came before B, A caused B. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

90. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / False Cause/ Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause? A. The waiter went off duty early, and then the vase was discovered missing, so he must have stolen it. B. In Vermont we leave our doors unlocked all year round, so I don’t think it’s necessary for you New Yorkers to have three locks on your front doors. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

91. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / False Cause/ Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false cause? A. The waiter went off duty early, and then the vase was discovered missing, so he must have stolen it. B. In Vermont we leave our doors unlocked all year round, so I don’t think it’s necessary for you New Yorkers to have three locks on your front doors. The waiter going off duty does not indicate that he stole the vase. He may have gone home sick. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

92. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue In the error in reasoning known as false comparison, the assumption is that two things are more alike than they really are. False Comparison Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

93. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ False Comparison To judge whether or not this is a false comparison, consider how the two situations are alike and how they differ. Consider this argument: When your grandmother was your age, she was already married and had four children. So why aren’t you married? Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

94. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ False Comparison When your grandmother was your age, she was already married and had four children. So why aren’t you married? They are similar in that both involve persons of the same age. But the situations are different in two respects: (1) society, when the grandmother was young, encouraged early marriage; (2) the grandmother was not working outside the home or attending college. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

95. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ False Comparison When your grandmother was your age, she was already married and had four children. So why aren’t you married? The differences in this case are more important than the similarities, making it a false comparison. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

96. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ False Comparison Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison? A. A week after a new building supervisor took over, the elevator stopped working. What a lousy super he is! B. All of my friends like my tattoo and pierced tongue, so I’m sure my new boss will too. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

97. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ False Comparison Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false comparison? A. A week after a new building supervisor took over, the elevator stopped working. What a lousy super he is! B. All of my friends like my tattoo and pierced tongue, so I’m sure my new boss will too. There probably are many differences between the speaker’s friends and the speaker’s boss—including differences in taste. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

98. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue It is often wrong to assume that there are only two sides to a question. Offering only two choices when more actually exist is an either-or fallacy. While some issues have only two sides, most have several. Either-Or Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

99. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ Either-Or This either-or argument ignores the fact that a person can support gun control and believe that hunters and others have the right to own guns. A person may want to keep guns out of the hands of children and criminals. That does not mean the person wants to take away the rights of those who own guns for legitimate reasons. People who support gun control want to take away our rights. Consider this argument: Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

100. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ Either-Or Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy? A. Why can’t we have a big dog in this apartment? You had a Great Dane when you were growing up on the farm. B. Eat your string beans, or you won’t grow up strong and healthy. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

101. CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue/ Either-Or Which item contains an example of the either-or fallacy? A. Why can’t we have a big dog in this apartment? You had a Great Dane when you were growing up on the farm. B. Eat your string beans, or you won’t grow up strong and healthy. There are other ways to grow up healthy and strong besides eating one’s string beans. Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.

102. In this chapter, you learned that critical readers evaluate an author’s support for a point and determine whether that support is solid or not. Critical reading includes the following three abilities: Detecting propaganda. Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians often try to promote their points by appealing to our emotions rather than our powers of reason. To do so, they practice six common propaganda techniques: bandwagon, testimonial, transfer, plain folks, name calling, and glittering generalities. Recognizing errors in reasoning. Politicians and others are at times guilty of errors in reasoning—fallacies—that take the place of the real support needed in an argument. Such fallacies include circular reasoning, personal attack, straw man, false cause, false comparison, and either-or. Separating fact from opinion. A fact is information that can be proved true through objective evidence. An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that cannot be proved objectively true. Much of what we read is a mixture of fact and opinion, and our job as readers is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion. Textbooks and other effective writing provide informed opinion—opinion based upon factual information. Chapter Review CHAPTER 10 Critical Reading Copyright © 2015 Townsend Press. All rights reserved.