1. Thinking & Problem Solving

2. Thinking

3. Thought Cognition—mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge Thinking—manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions. –Mental processes directed at a goal or purpose. –2 kinds of mental representations: 1.Mental image—representation of objects or events that are not present 2.Concepts – mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features.

4. Mental Image Mental Image – mental representation of an object or event not physically present. Mental imaging works similar to actual visual imaging. Mental images are constructed and therefore subject to error.

5. Steven Kosslyn had people memorize a map of an island and then asked them to imagine specific areas. People took time to mentally scan their mental image and find the different locations. People took the same amount of time to mentally scan the image as they did to visually scan it.

6. Concepts Concept—mental category we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features. Three Types of Concepts: 1.Formal concept 2.Natural concept 3.Prototype

7. Examples of Concepts Formal concept— rigid rules or features that define a particular concept. –All or nothing categorization process Categories for solid, liquid, or gas A polygon is… Natural concept—Eleanor Rosch said these form from everyday experience and do not have boundaries that are sharply defined –Name some mammals…

8. Concept Hierarchy A means to keep mental information organized from basic concepts to specific ones

9. Concept Hierarchy

10. Prototype A typical best example incorporating the major features of a concept The closer a new object is to our concept prototype the easier it is to categorize it If an object has four wheels and doors it probably fits our prototype for…

11. Problem Solving Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available. Must understand the problem correctly to accurately solve it.

12. Trial & Error Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don’t work.

13. Algorithms A problem solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem Not always the most efficient method  y +  z = r 2

14. Using an Algorithm Pick any month of the year. Look at four dates that form a square in that month and add them together for a total. Given this total, how can you determine the four dates the person chose using an algorithm? To find the first date divide the sum by 4 and then subtract 4. To find the second date just add 1 to the date you got above. To find the third date add 7 to the first date. To find the fourth date add 8 to the first date.

15. Heuristics A rule-of-thumb problem solving strategy that makes a solution more likely and efficient but does not guarantee a solution Example: “I” before “E” except after “C” They simplify the problem because they let you reduce the number of possible solutions. (Use the index to find a topic) These can be handy shortcuts, or they can get us into trouble. (What if topic not in the index?)

16. Two ways we use Heuristics Subgoals – divide the problem into to smaller more manageable parts –As you solve each subproblem you get closer to solving the larger problem. Working Backward – determine the steps to reach your goal starting from the end point. (i.e. making a budget).

17. Insight The sudden realization of the solution to a problem “Unconscious Problem Solving” – You’re not aware of the thought process that led you to an insight. The solutions to these problems are often characterized by sudden flashes of insight. Solutions are on page 288 in your textbook.

18. Intuition Intuition—coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved Kenneth Bowers explains: New info is combined with existing info in the long-term memory in a two- stage process. 1.Guiding Stage – perceive a pattern in the info but not consciously. Perception formed from your areas of expertise. 2.Integrative Stage – the pattern is now in the consciousness and you try to prove or disprove your hypothesis.

19. Obstacles to Solving Problems

20. Functional Fixedness Type of mental set Inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one Have to unlock the door? Use a credit card. Tighten a screw without a screwdriver? –Use scissors

21. Mounting candle problem Using only the objects present on the right, attach the candle to the bulletin board in such a way that the candle can be lit and will burn properly

22. Answer to candle problem Most people do not think of using the box for anything other than its normal use (to hold the tacks) To solve the problem, you have to overcome functional fixedness

23. Problem Solving and Computers Mode Confusion Play “Cockpit Confusion” (11:14) Segment #11 from Scientific American Frontiers Mode Confusion for pilots. When we rely too much on computers

24. Mental Set A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way A well-established habit of perception or thought The set may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

25. Nine dots problem Without lifting your pencil or re-tracing any line, draw four straight lines that connect all nine dots

26. Nine dots mental set Most people will not draw lines that extend from the square formed by the nine dots To solve the problem, you have to break your mental set

27. Fixation A mental set that hinders the solution of a problem One needs to think beyond the mental set to solve the new problem

28. Can you measure out the amount of water in the right-hand column, using any of the three jars (A, B, and C) with volumes as shown in the middle column?

29. Problems 1 through 7 can all be solved by filling Jar B, then pouring off enough water to fill Jar A once and Jar C twice desired volume = B - A - 2C Problem 6 can be solved with a simpler formula (A - C), and so can Problem 7 (A + C). Many people miss these easy solutions because the mental set from the first several problems becomes fixated. Did your thinking stay flexible?

30. Problems 1 through 7 can all be solved by filling Jar B, then pouring off enough water to fill Jar A once and Jar C twice desired volume = B - A - 2C Problem 6 can be solved with a simpler formula (A - C), and so can Problem 7 (A + C). Many people miss these easy solutions because the mental set from the first several problems becomes fixated. Did your thinking stay flexible?

31. Decision Making

32. Single feature model—make a decision by focusing on only one feature –Do you use this model in making decisions? –Ever choose a date based on looks? –Go see a movie because a friend told you it was good? –Choose a restaurant based on price? Choose a class based on how easy you heard it was?

33. Additive Model Systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative. First create a list of factors that are important to you. Then rate each alternative on each factor. What factors do you consider when choosing a college? (See transparency chart)

34. Elimination-by-Aspects Rate choices based on features. Evaluate each alternative one characteristic at a time staring with the one you think is most important. Eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria even if they have other desirable characteristics. Over time your alternatives will be narrowed down. We often use this to get our options to a few and then use the additive model to make the final decision.

35. Decisions Involving Uncertainty

36. Availability Heuristic Uses information from our memory to judge the likelihood of events When instances of an event are easily recalled we consider that event more likely to reoccur. Can be correct or incorrect Rare events can cause us to overestimate the likelihood of reoccurrence. (i.e plane crashes)

37. Availability Heuristic Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV Most will underestimate deaths from asthma because they don’t make the local news

38. Representative Heuristic Estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing how similar its essential features are to our prototype of the event. Example: Because Ken is 6‘6“, people often mistakenly assume that he must be a member of his college's basketball team Can be false if… –We fail to consider possible variations from the prototype. –Fail to consider approximate number of prototypes that actually exist. Most will overuse this strategy

39. Bias Effects Confirmation bias—only search for information confirming one’s belief. Belief bias—accept only information that conforms to beliefs Fallacy of positive instances—remember uncommon events that confirm our beliefs Overestimation—tendency to overestimate rarity of events

40. Overconfidence The tendency to be more confident than correct when estimating the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments How well do you know your info for this test?

41. Framing The way an issue is worded or presented Can influence decisions and judgments –Do you think it is OK to kill unborn children? –Do you believe that abortion is an appropriate option for those with unwanted pregnancies?

42. Belief Perseverance The tendency for our preexisting opinions to distort our sense of whether a particular conclusion is logically valid Clinging to one’s initial beliefs even after new information discredits the basis on which they were formed the best advice to give people who want to avoid belief perseverance is: “Consider the Opposite”

43. 1. Break mental sets – be creative! (see next slide) 2. Find useful analogy 3. Represent information efficiently 4. Find shortcuts 5. Establish sub-goals 6. Turn ill-defined problems into well-defined problems Strategies for solving problems

44. Be Creative! (pg. 313-314) Choose the goal of creativity Reinforce creative behavior Engage in problem finding Acquire relevant knowledge Try different approaches Exert effort and expect setbacks