1. Section 1

2. Qualitative Research: Theory and Practice  Methods chosen for research dependant on a number of factors including:  Purpose of the research  Characteristics of the participants  Researchers’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired.  Epistemology: questions such as  “how can we know about the world?”  “what is the basis of our knowledge?”  Ontology: Does a social reality exist independently of human perceptions and interpretations?

3. Theory and practice  Ritchie and Lewis (2003)  Three main questions on the debate in relation to epistemology: 1.What is the relationship between the researcher and the researched?  Being studied effects people so they do not behave naturally.  The researcher brings assumptions and influences the way data are collected and analyzed.  Reflexivity: researcher needs to reflect on their own background and beliefs so it can be known the role it plays in the research process. 2.What can be held as truth?  Correspondence theory of truth:  The claim that truth or falsity of knowledge is determined by if it accurately describes the world.  There must be a match between observations of the natural world and independent reality.  Coherence theory of truth:  The trust or falsity of knowledge is not absolute, but rather consensual.  Truth is determined by whether or not it can be supported by other observations or statements. *assuming the truth is in the data 3.How is knowledge gathered?  The natural sciences rely on deductive processes (hypothesis testing.)  Focus on cause-and-effect relationships, generalization, and prediction.  Social sciences rely on inductive processes based on collected data to reach conclusions.  Focus on understanding of social processes.

4. Theory and practice  Ritchie and Lewis (2003)  Interpretative approach – the understanding from the view of those involved.  The goal of qualitative research is to get a picture of the external reality that is diverse and multifaceted.  Rolfe (2006)  There is no unified qualitative paradigm, it only appears so in textbooks.

5. Theory and practice  The difference between qualitative and quantitative data:  Quantitative:  research based on “numbers” that are easy to summarize and submit for statistical analysis.  Quantitative meant to be generalizations from a sample’s data.  Qualitative:  Qualitative data gathered directly through interaction with participants.  Ex: one-on-one interview, group interview, observation.  Qualitative data consists of text.  Ex: field notes and transcripts.  Qualitative data texts are open-ended and able to be interpreted.

6. Theory and practice  Strengths of qualitative research:  Provides rich data – descriptions of individuals based on concepts, meanings, and explanations from data.  Useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues.  Ex: illness, sexuality, homelessness, abusive relationships.  Explain phenomena – what lies behind it; why?  Solves problems through identifying and evaluating factors.  Ex: What initiatives are needed to resettle homeless people.  Generates new ideas and theories to explain and overcome problems.  People studied in their own environment increases validity.

7. Theory and practice  Limitations of qualitative research:  Time-consuming and generates much data.  No clear strategy for breaking down the data.  Interpretations of data may be subjective.

8. Theory and practice  Can qualitative studies be generalized?  Representational generalization  Findings from a qualitative research study can be applied to populations outside of the study.  Inferential generalization  Findings of the study can be applied to settings outside of the study (aka. Transferability or external validity)  Theoretical generalization  Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory. (inferences about effective policy.)

9. Theory and practice  Ethical considerations  Informed consent – sometimes impossible for valid research.  Protecting participants from harm – sensitive issue with violence, abuse, alcoholism, etc.  Anonymity and confidentiality – The identity of participants should not be known by those outside of the research team with few exceptions.

10. Theory and practice  Sampling techniques of qualitative research  Probability – related to statistical probability and representativeness  Non-probability sampling – most rigorous approach to sampling for statistical research.  Samples in qualitative research are chosen to represent important characteristics of a population.  Three different kinds of sampling:  Purposive sampling  Snowball sampling  Convenience sampling

11. Theory and practice  Purposive sampling:  Targets a particular group of people.  Criteria based on the aim of the study.  Useful in situations where the researcher needs to obtain a sample quickly to investigate an urgent problem such as a new rehab scheme for people who have had strokes.  May be the only option if sample is hard to locate.  Ex: homeless elderly women  Keep in mind that purposive sampling may be biased.

12. Theory and practice  Snowball sampling  Used to get a hold of participants without investing much time and energy.  Researchers ask participants if they know anyone else who would fit into the group.  May help locate hidden populations (rare or hard to find people.)  Cost-efficient sampling to locate participants.  Difficult to avoid bias and confidentiality concerns in snowball sampling.

13. Theory and practice  Convenience sampling  Concentrates on people who are available and asked if they would like to participate.  Ex: high school students, college students, people in the mall.  A sample could represent not only those in the study, but those in similar situations around the country.  Similar research needs to be done in order to confirm it.

14. Theory and practice  Participant expectations and research bias in qualitative research.  Participation expectations (reactivity)  participants’ ideas of the research and the trustworthiness of the data (behave in certain ways to please researcher.  Researcher bias  The researcher’s own beliefs that determine the research process (little attention paid to participants.

15. Theory and practice  Credibility in qualitative research  Credibility – internal validity that is used.  Trustworthiness – the findings of the research reflect the meaning as described by the participants.  Guba and Lincoln (1989) – peer reviews are needed to check for proper interpretations of the data or applying other methods of analysis.  Rolfe (2006) – A study is trustworthy if, and only if, the reader of the research report judges it to be so.

16. Theory and practice  Effect of triangulation on credibility and trustworthiness on qualitative research.  Triangulation – the cross-checking of information and conclusions in research through the use of multiple procedures or sources.  Forms of triangulation:  Method triangulation – involves comparing data that comes from the use of different methods.  Data triangulation – involves comparing data that come from data gathered from other participants or other sources. (ex: observations and interviews)  Researcher triangulation – the use of several observers, interviewers, or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation.  Theory triangulation – involves looking at the data using different theoretical perspectives.  Hammersly (1992) – There is no completely reliable way to find “truth.” The closest way is to carefully examine all evidence and see if it supports the interpretation.

17. Theory and practice  Reflexivity in qualitative research  Willig (2001) – there are two types of reflexivity:  Personal reflexivity – reflecting on ways researcher’s values, beliefs, experiences, interests, and political commitment influence the research. Also, how the research effects the researcher personally and professionally.  Epistemological reflexivity – thinking about the ways knowledge has been generated in the study.  Examples:  Asking if the research question limits what could be found.  Is the design of the study and analysis of results biased?  Would a different approach have brought about a different understanding of the topic?