1. Lecture 1 Linguistic Theory

2. Aims of Linguistic Theory What constitutes knowledge of language? What constitutes knowledge of language?(Competence) How is knowledge of language acquired? How is knowledge of language acquired?(Acquisition) How is knowledge of language put to use? How is knowledge of language put to use?(Performance)

3. Knowledge of Language Knowledge of a language permits one to connect symbols (sounds, gestures, …) with meanings: symbolslanguagemeanings Understanding (Decoding) meaningslanguagesymbols Expressing (Encoding) Meanings Language Symbols

4. Grammar Grammar is the linguistic knowledge as represented in a speaker’s mind (a mental representation of linguistic knowledge). Grammar is the linguistic knowledge as represented in a speaker’s mind (a mental representation of linguistic knowledge). The linguistic theory is concerned with revealing the nature of this mental grammar. The linguistic theory is concerned with revealing the nature of this mental grammar. Therefore, a general theory of language is a theory of grammar. Therefore, a general theory of language is a theory of grammar.

5. Grammar Components A grammar is all we know about the structure of our language: Lexicon Lexicon (the vocabulary in the mental dictionary) Morphology Morphology (the structure of words) Syntax Syntax (the structure of larger constituents and the constraints on their well-formedness) Phonetics & Phonology Phonetics & Phonology (the sounds and the sound systems or patterns)

6. The lexicon It is the component containing all knowledge about the structural properties of the lexical items in a language: It is the component containing all knowledge about the structural properties of the lexical items in a language: their semantic specifications, their syntactic specifications, andtheir phonological specifications.

7. Morphology Speakers of a language have knowledge of the principles governing word structure. They accept: agree + -ment = agreement dis- + agree = disagree But, they reject: -ment + agree + dis- = *mentagreedis

8. Syntax Speakers of a language have knowledge of: -what constitutes a well-formed string of words -how to put words together to form larger structures -when such strings are grammatical (well-formed) or ungrammatical (ill-formed) Therefore, sentence grammaticality does not depend on truth or earlier encounter, as the number and length of sentences in any language is INFINITE.

9. Semantics Speakers of a language have knowledge of what the expressions in their language mean or signify: -sentences structured in all the different patterns the syntax allows -sentences embedded and coordinated -negated sentences and questions Therefore, the speakers’ ability to recognise syntactic structures comes with their parallel ability to understand what the infinite range of structures signifies.

10. Phonetics & Phonology Speakers of a language have knowledge of the principles governing sound patterns: -they know the sounds and the sound patters present in their language [ klA  s ], [ kl  s ] -they know the sounds and the sound patters that may occur in their language [ klIsp ] -they know the sounds and the sound patters that may not occur in their language [ lkIsp ]

11. Universal Grammar Roger Bacon, a thirteenth century philosopher wrote: He that understands grammar in one language, understands it in another as far as the essential properties of grammar are concerned. The fact that he can’t speak, nor comprehend, another language is due to the diversity of words and their various forms, but these are the accidental properties of grammar.

12. The Grammars Universal Grammar (UG) Universal Grammar (UG) the constraints on the form of the grammars of all human languages Descriptive Grammars Descriptive Grammars the idealised forms of the mental grammars of all speakers of a certain language Mental Grammars Mental Grammars the shared body of knowledge and the idiosyncrasy Prescriptive and Teaching Grammars Prescriptive and Teaching Grammars the dos and don’t dos (that are not of much interest to linguistics)

13. But, how? Children are exposed to a finite set of sentences, Children are exposed to a finite set of sentences, yet they come to use and understand an infinite set of sentences never heard or spoken previously. The precise linguistic input differs from child to child, The precise linguistic input differs from child to child, yet they all arrive at almost the same grammar. The input that children get is haphazard, The input that children get is haphazard, yet all children develop systematic knowledge of language.

14. Language Acquisition Despite the severe limitations and variation in the input, children develop a rich and uniform system of linguistic knowledge. Despite the severe limitations and variation in the input, children develop a rich and uniform system of linguistic knowledge. This problem of explaining the ease, rapidity, and uniformity of language development in the face of impoverished data is called the logical problem of language acquisition (LPLA). This problem of explaining the ease, rapidity, and uniformity of language development in the face of impoverished data is called the logical problem of language acquisition (LPLA).

15. Innate Endowment How do we come to know as much as we do about our language if not from the linguistic environment? Does the knowledge attained go beyond that? The British philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote: How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as we do know? Is the belief in our knowledge partly illusory? And if not, what must we know otherwise than through the senses?

16. UG Much of what we know about our language is not learned from the input. Much of what we know about our language is not learned from the input. It is rather part of an innate endowment. It is rather part of an innate endowment. This is Universal Grammar (UG). This is Universal Grammar (UG). UG specifies the form and functioning of human language in general. UG specifies the form and functioning of human language in general.

17. Experience OR Expectation Language acquisition is not mere experience. Language acquisition is not mere experience. Language acquisition is not armed only with general problem-solving skills such as imitation, memorisation, analogy, or general induction. Language acquisition is not armed only with general problem-solving skills such as imitation, memorisation, analogy, or general induction. Rather, children are equipped with a set of specific expectations about linguistic structure and the principles governing language. Rather, children are equipped with a set of specific expectations about linguistic structure and the principles governing language.

18. Expectation THEN Experience The basic form of language is part of our human biology. The basic form of language is part of our human biology. UG helps us overcome the limitations of the input and guides our grammatical development. UG helps us overcome the limitations of the input and guides our grammatical development. Thus, it is more appropriate to think in terms of language growth rather than learning. Thus, it is more appropriate to think in terms of language growth rather than learning.

19. Expectation THEN Experience There is an element of learning. There is an element of learning. Languages share many essential properties (those derived from UG), but they differ from one another in various respects. Languages share many essential properties (those derived from UG), but they differ from one another in various respects. These differences must be learned on the basis of experience. These differences must be learned on the basis of experience. So, UG is like a template with gaps bridged through experience with a particular language. So, UG is like a template with gaps bridged through experience with a particular language.

20. Performance There is a distinction between the representation of what we know in our minds and how we put this knowledge to use. There is a distinction between the representation of what we know in our minds and how we put this knowledge to use. Although in principle we may understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, we do not (and can not) actually do that. Although in principle we may understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, we do not (and can not) actually do that. Differences between linguistic knowledge (competence) and linguistic performance are revealed through slips of the tongue or lapses of memory. Differences between linguistic knowledge (competence) and linguistic performance are revealed through slips of the tongue or lapses of memory.

21. Summing up Human language is characterised by creativity. Human language is characterised by creativity. Speakers of a language have access to a grammar: Speakers of a language have access to a grammar: which is a mental system that allows them to form and interpret familiar and novel utterances. All languages have grammars that are equal in their expressive capacity. All languages have grammars that are equal in their expressive capacity. All speakers of a language have subconscious knowledge of its grammar. All speakers of a language have subconscious knowledge of its grammar. The skeleton for this knowledge is innate. The skeleton for this knowledge is innate.

22. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. Are the following sentences acceptable? Are the following sentences acceptable? Jason’s mother left himself with nothing to eat. Miriam is eager to talk to. This is the man I took a picture of. Colin made Jane a sandwich. Is the dog sleeping the bone again? Max cleaned the garden up. Max cleaned up the garden. Max cleaned up it. I desire you to leave. That you likes liver surprises me.

23. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. Identify the violated prescriptive rules in the following acceptable sentences: Identify the violated prescriptive rules in the following acceptable sentences: He don’t know about the race. You was out when I called. There’s twenty horses registered in the show. That window’s broke, so be careful. I seen the parade last week. He been lost in the woods for ten days. Julie ain’t got none. John hurt hisself in the game. They’ve went to town. She very kind. We sees her every day in the park.

24. Phonetics & Phonology Are they two faces of the same coin? Do they share any analytical tools? Or, are they completely different disciplines?