1. ‘All that is psychological is first physiological’

2.  MRI  fMRI

3. Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour. Discuss: offer a balanced review supported by knowledge and evidence

4.  Non-invasive procedures  Can be used to: ◦ Measure brain activity ◦ Look at brain structures ◦ Discover function of brain areas  These techniques are very useful to psychologists as they allow study of the brain which is within the ethical guidelines of the British Psychological Society and international equivalents.

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6.  Cannot be done in 21 st century because can be very dangerous  Invasive procedures include: ◦ Electroconvulsive therapy: electric shock given through electrodes ◦ Psychotherapy: includes lobotomies and lesioning by which sections of brain are removed and behaviiur is compared before and afterwards

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8.  Modern technology is now extensively used in neuropsychology  Useful because it allows researchers to study active brain: ◦ See where specific brain processes take place ◦ Enables localisation of function in LIVING brain

9.  Each has its own advantages and disadvantages and is appropriate in varying situations 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) 2. Positron Emission Topography (PET) 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

10.  Cannot be fully described as a brain imaging technique as does not show an image of brain  Instead shows an image of electrical activity in brain  When neurons transport information through the brain, they have an electrical charge  Registers patterns of voltage change in the brain

11. Strengths Relatively easy to carry out procedure Psychologists have gained better understanding of behaviours as diverse as sleep, emotions & epilepsyLimitations  Provides limited information-cannot show brain structures so electronic activity cannot be localised to a particular part of brain  Can only show surface brain regions and can’t show electrical activity in deeper structures of brain such as the corpus callusum

12.  Monitors glucose metabolism in brain  Patient injected with harmless dose of radioactive glucose tracer  Shows areas where glucose is absorbed in active brain More glucose= more brain activity  Used to diagnose abnormalities like tumors, Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia etc

13.  PET shows a coloured visual display of brain activity: ◦ Red indicates most activity ◦ Blue indicates least activity

14. Strengths  High resolution  Can be used for detection of disorders like Parkinson’s diseaseLimitations  Invasive (injection)  Very expensive  Injection is radioactive isotope. Although within safety levels there is a limit to number of injections you can have  Any exposure to radiation carries a very small risk of causing damage to tissues and the possibility of triggering a new cancer.  However, in a standard PET scan the amount of radiation you are exposed to is the same as the amount received from natural sources, such as the sun, over the course of three years.

15.  Uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the body.  Gives detailed pictures of internal structures in brain  People remove all metal objects and clothing and lie within an MRI machine

16.  Used MRI to investigate whether substance abuse (marijuana) can damage developing brain of young adults  Scan indicated that there were brain abnormalities in frontal, parietal and temporal regions in brain of marijuana users  Development of white matter (myelin*) was affected could explain slow information processing in brain  Concluded that early marijuana use can affect brain development but as study gives correlational data more research is needed *Remember: Myelin sheath covers neuron and helps to speed up neurotransmission Study GroupControl Group 14 young men with history of heavy marijuana abuse over long period of time 14 young men who had no history of marijuana use

17. Case study of H.M.  Corkin et al (1997) did MRI scan of H.M’s brain which allowed for precise picture of brain damage. Confirmed that hippocampus was missing- able to link to memory.

18. Perry (1997)  Brain scans of three year olds who had a normal upbringing and those who were severely neglected  Found differences in brain size and development

19.  MRI scans show how blood flows in brain and can be used to identify problems with blood circulation. Can be used for early detection of Alzheimer’s  Non-invasive  Individuals can be tested repeatedly  Practical and easy to use most hospitals already have them  Fast 1/2 mins most of brain  Safe to use as no radioactive material is used

20.  Scanner not a natural environment for cognition- question of ecological validity  Very expensive  Movement may affect images  Cannot be used on everyone claustrophobic people, obese people patients with pacemakers or metallic implants cannot be studied due to magnetic fields  Cannot say anything about cause and effect relationships, only provide correlational data

21.  Scanner measures changes in blood flow in active brain  Blood flow associated with use of oxygen and neural activity during information processing  When participants are asked to perform a task, scientists can observe the part of the brain that corresponds with that function  Use increased vastly over past ten years and now widely used by cognitive neuroscientists

22.  Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) provides pictures of structures inside the body, while functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging evaluates metabolic processes.  MRI can be used anywhere in the body, while fMRI studies concentrate on the brain.  In an MRI scan, the goal is to get an image of anatomical features in a given area of the body. The equipment can be used to generate high-resolution images where various organs will appear as clearly distinct from each other, and abnormalities like tumors can be easy to spot.  fMRI looks specifically at blood flow in the brain and is capable of detecting very small changes. This allows the test to identify when different areas of the brain become active, which can help a doctor or researcher see what a patient’s brain is doing.  MRI and fMRI are typically ordered for very different reasons.

23. fMRI study of neurobiological mechanism of attraction Aim:  To investigate the neural mechanisms associated with the attraction system (romantic love). Procedure:  Participants were 10 women and seven men aged from 18 to 26, who reported being in love for an average of 7.5 months.  Participants first filled out a questionnaire (The Passionate Love Scale) to investigate how they felt about their relationship.  Then they were placed in the fMRI scanner.  They first looked at a photograph of their beloved, then performed a distraction task of counting backwards, and finally they looked at a photograph of a neutral acquaintance. This was repeated six times. Results:  Increased activity in the dopamine rich brain areas associated with reward, motivation, and goal orientation (dopamine-rich areas associated with mammalian reward and motivation) when participants looked at their lover.  The results indicate the possibility of brain circuits dedicated to attraction (romantic love). The same brain circuits have been associated with “addiction”, which could support the hypothesis that “romantic love is an addiction”. Fisher argues that “romantic love” is universal and based on neurobiological factors.

24. Baumgartner et al (2008) Oxytocin and Trust  fMRI scans carried out on participants  In oxytocin group cans showed decreases in responses in amygdala (involved in emotional processing) and caudate nucleus (involved in learning to trust)  Explanation for behaviour in trust game

25.  One of most frequently used technologies in biopsychological research today  Shows actual brain activity and indicates which areas of brain are active  Scans have higher resolution than PET scans and are easier to carry out  Does not use radioactive substances  Can record activity in all regions of brain

26.  Focus mostly on localised functioning in brain and does not take into account the distributed nature of processing in neural networks  Results are correlational so not possible to establish cause and effect relationships  Scanner not a natural environment for cognition- question of ecological validity  Brain areas activate for different reasons- e.g. Just because amygdala lights up does not necessarily mean fear is the response being observed

27.  Different brain imaging methods each have own strengths and limitations  Different methods suitable for different purposes  Brain scanning techniques have allowed researchers to learn more about brain and biological links to behaviour