1. EHS 507 Setting the PEL  Old PEL  Sig Risk*  New PEL  L.F. Risk*  Data Arsenic  500  g/m 3  148-767  10  g/ m 3  2.2-2.9  Epidemiology Ethylene Oxide 50 ppm 63-109 1 ppm 1.2-2.3 Toxicology *Excess deaths/1000 exposed for 45 yr.

2. THE MORAL/ETHICAL DIMENSION When it comes to setting standards and exposure limits:- –who decides what? –on behalf of whom? –on what basis?

3. INTERDISCIPLINARY FACTORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ISSUES Natural scientists Life sciences Physical sciences Social scientists Behavioral sciences Management sciences Political

4. A STANDARD AS THE BASIS FOR CONTROLLING EXPOSURE 1Elimination of the risk factor. 2Technical reduction of exposure. 3Administrative procedures to reduce exposure. 4Personal responsibility..... THE STANDARD AS A ‘YARDSTICK’ AGAINST WHICH TO MEASURE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTROL. HIERARCHY OF CONTROLS

5. REGULATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) founded in 1970 “to treat air pollution, water pollution and solid wastes as different forms of a single problem..”President Nixon’s charge to the first EPA Administrator “to treat air pollution, water pollution and solid wastes as different forms of a single problem..”

6. EPA MISSION Clean air Clean and safe water Safe food Preventing pollution and reducing risk in communities, homes, etc. and ecosystems Better waste management Reduction of global environmental risks Expansion of right to know Sound science Effective management

7. SOME KEY ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATORY MILESTONES Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Clean Air Act (1970, amended 1990) Clean Water Act (1977) Lead Contamination Control Act (1988) Food Quality Protection Act (1996) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970)

8. CONTROL OPTIONS FOR AIR POLLUTION FROM INDUSTRY Change process or equipment. Reduction in production Substitution of materials. Air cleaning technology. Improve dilution and dispersal. Shut down operation!

9. CONTROL OPTIONS FOR MOBILE EMISSIONS Less cars and trucks. Cleaner vehicles. Better fuel economy Cleaner fuels.

10. CONTROL OPTIONS FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER Protect groundwater at source:- –reduce agricultural runoff. –careful placement of landfill. –control industrial discharges. Water treatment:- –filtration (sand, adsorbers). –softening. –distillation.

11. ENGINEERING TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL LIQUID WASTE (i.e., sewage) Primary :- –holding tank to remove suspended solids by settling; floating oils, etc. are skimmed off and passed to anaerobic digester. Secondary (biological):- –transformation under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Tertiary:- –filtration and disinfection.

12. STANDARDS FOR SOLID WASTE In the USA, the primary agency for promulgating and enforcing regulations about solid waste is EPA. Solid Waste Disposal Act in 1974; Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund) in 1980; later amendments.

13. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT EPA now requires minimization of production of solid waste by polluters:- –segregation at source. –elimination/substitution of raw materials. –changing manufacturing processes.

14. SOLID WASTE TREATMENT A wide range of physical, chemical or biological processes aimed at:- –neutralizing the material (making it safe). –recovering useful energy or materials. incineration a useful approach, but need to be careful when burning plastics

15. FOOD SAFETY In the USA, several agencies are responsible for food safety:- –FDA (labeling, food additives, food processing, etc.) –DoA (inspection and labeling of meat and eggs, imports, human nutrition aspects of food, etc.) as well as EPA (use of pesticides, etc.) Microbiological hazards a major part, both in processing and in domestic use.

16. KEY INTERVENTIONS (Food Code, US Department of HHS, FDA, 1999) Demonstration of knowledge Employee health controls Controlling hands as a vehicle of contamination Time/temperature controls Consumer advisory Address risk factors documented by CDC

17. CONTROL MEASURES FOR INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

18. STANDARDS FOR OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS In the USA, the primary agency for promulgating and enforcing workplace standards is the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA). Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970, amended in 1974, 1978, 1982 and 1984. Also influential: the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

19. TECHNICAL CONTROL OPTIONS FOR THE WORKPLACE Change process or equipment. Reduction in production. Substitution of materials. General exhaust ventilation. Local exhaust ventilation. Personal protective equipment –respirators –hearing protectors –eye protectors, etc. } the last resort!!

20. RADIATION SAFETY The players:- –International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) –NCRP –Federal Radiation Council (FRC)

21. NCRP RECOMMENDATIONS (1987) FOR TOTAL RADIATION DOSE a heavy smoker may be getting close to this a uranium miner may be getting close to this

22. FACTORS INFLUENCING RADIATION PROTECTION Distance Time Shielding Sanitation stay as far away as possible keep exposure time as short as possible do all that is necessary to keep radioactive materials out of the body interpose dense material (e.g., lead, concrete, water, etc.) between source and subject

23. STORAGE OF WASTE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS (e.g., SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL) For long-lived radioactive material (e.g., Pu 239 ):- –Treatment and concentration. –Encapsulation. –Interment at sea or underground.