1. Hukou Identity, Education and Migration: The Case of Guangdong
Photo Ming Pao 12 Feb 2007
Jianfa SHEN
Department of Geography and Resource Management
The Chinese University of Hong Kong

2. Contents Introduction Data and methodology
Effect of hukou status on occupation
Effect of hukou identity on migration
Conclusion
Photo Ming Pao 12 Feb 2007
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

3. Introduction Hukou (household registration) system
During 1950s to early 1980s, Chinese society was divided into urban and rural areas separately
Individuals are registered in a particular place
under hukou categories of agricultural population and non-agricultural population
Urban residents with hukou category of non-agricultural population
were eligible for much economic and welfare benefit such as education, housing and employment
The concept of hukou identity in this paper is defined based on such hukou category
Left photo accessed on 5 July 2007,
Right Photo Ming Pao 12 Fen 2007
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

4. Introduction
Since the early 1980s, Chinese people have been allowed to move to other places without change their place of hukou registration
Hukou status: with or without local hukou
Temporary population
people without local hukou
Hukou population
people with local hukou
Temporary (non-hukou) migrants
without local hukou
Permanent (hukou) migrants
with local hukou
Photo, accessed on 5 July 2007,
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

5. Hukou system and migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

6. Introduction
Previous studies focused on the impact of hukou status on migration
The temporary migrants were treated as a homogenous group
Different hukou identities of agricultural and non-agricultural populations will also affect migration outcome
Agricultural population is more likely to engage in temporary migration
Difference in permanent and temporary migration is also related to the difference in education level
Effect of spatial scale on migration
hukou constrains on temporary migrants are only effective for temporary migrants from outside a city
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

7. Introduction Research question
Is the observed effect of hukou status on migration affected by
Education level
Hukou category
Spatial scale of migration?
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

8. Data and methodology Guangdong for a case study
Rapid industrialization and urbanization since the 1980s
Driven by foreign investment
Migrant workers are the main production force
Largest destination of temporary migration
A temporary population of million
15.06 million from other provinces in 2000
One per thousand sampling data
In 2000, 9.44% of the population was asked to complete a long census form in Guangdong
The data set used is a 1% sample of people completing the long census form
Sample population of 78684
non-migrants
new migrants who migrated in the five-year period
old migrants who had ever migrated before 1 November 1995
This paper will focus on the non-migrants and new migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

9. Data and methodology
The occupation data will be used to represent the migration outcome
The difference between permanent and temporary migration would be identified
education level will be controlled
Temporary migrants would also be differentiated according to their original place of hukou
within same county-level unit, within same province or other provinces
to examine the impact of spatial scale on migration
The impact of hukou category of agricultural population and non-agricultural population on migration will be examined
controlling the education level and the hukou status
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

10. Effect of hukou status on occupation
Majority of non-migrants had low occupational status
64.27% of male non-migrants were peasants
17.49% of male non-migrants were employed as plant and machine operators
Male permanent migrants were distributed more evenly among low and high occupations
10.68% were managers and administrators
25.05% were professionals
27.57% plant and machine operators
Male temporary migrants were in the types of
plant and machine operators (57.20%)
sales and services workers (21.49%)
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

11. Effect of hukou status on occupation
The spatial scale has clear impact on the migration outcome
temporary migrants from the same county-level unit had an occupational profile close to that of permanent migrants, much better than that of non-migrants.
the temporary migrants from other provinces had the lowest socio-economic status
Lots of female permanent migrants were peasants due to many rural to rural permanent migration for marriage
There was little gender difference among temporary migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

12. Effect of hukou status on occupation
When education level was controlled
The temporary migrants from the same county-level unit had an occupational profile
close to or better than that of permanent migrants
Temporary migrants from outside the province had lower occupation status than both permanent migrants and non-migrants
indicating their disadvantageous position
The social-economic status declines from
permanent migrants
temporary migrants from the same county-level unit
non-migrants
temporary migrants from outside the county-level unit of the same province
temporary migrants from outside the province
The temporary migrants from outside the county-level unit of the same province were better than the temporary migrants from outside the province
but generally poorer than permanent migrants and non-migrants in occupation status
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

13. Effect of hukou identity on migration
The hukou identity has major implications to people’s social and welfare in China
Most permanent migrants have hukou category of non-agricultural population
Most temporary migrants have hukou category of agricultural population and most of them come from other provinces
The observed difference in permanent and temporary migrants
could result from the difference in the hukou status or the difference in hukou identity or both
Agricultural population had lower education level than non-agricultural population
For non-agricultural population
Both permanent and temporary migrants had better education level than non-migrants
The permanent migrants had better education than temporary migrants
For agricultural population
temporary migrants had better education than permanent migrants which had better education than non-migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

14. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

15. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

16. Effect of hukou identity on migration
The temporary migrants had no disadvantage in education comparing with permanent migrants of the agricultural population
They had disadvantages in education only when compared with non-agricultural population
Simple comparisons of permanent and temporary migrants ignored the significant impact of hukou identity and education level on migration outcome
The poor education provision for agricultural population may be a fundamental factor in the poor economic performance of current temporary migrants
The hukou identity is yet another important factor in addition to the hukou status
The impact of hukou status can only be shown precisely by controlling hukou identity and education level
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

17. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Considering the people with only primary education, hukou category had clear impact on the occupation status
Over 40% permanent migrants were peasants for agricultural population
Less than 8% permanent migrants were peasants for non-agricultural population
Temporary migrants were less likely to be peasants for both agricultural and non-agricultural population
There was no negative effect of hukou status on temporary migrants from the same county-level units
Permanent migrants only had advantage over temporary migrants from outside the county-level units
Non-migrants with local hukou, especially male non-migrants of non-agricultural population, also had no clear advantage over temporary migrants
Low occupation status of temporary migrants is largely due to their primary education which is lower than that of most permanent migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

18. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Considering the people with only lower secondary education
Hukou category had some impacts on the occupation status
Among temporary migrants, non-agricultural population was more likely to be managers and administrators, professionals, clerks, and sales and services workers than agricultural population
For male agricultural population
The permanent migrants had the best occupation status, followed by temporary migrants from the county-level units, temporary migrants from outside the county-level units and non-migrants
For female agricultural population
The temporary migrants from the county-level units had the best occupation profile, followed by temporary migrants from outside the county-level units, non-migrants and permanent migrants
Temporary hukou status has negative effect on male agricultural population but not on female agricultural population
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

19. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

20. Effect of hukou identity on migration
For male non-agricultural population with lower secondary education
The temporary migrants from the county-level units had the best occupation status, followed by permanent migrants, non-migrants and temporary migrants from outside the county-level units
For female non-agricultural population with lower secondary education
The temporary migrants from the county-level units had the best occupation status, followed by non-migrants, temporary migrants from outside the county-level units of the same province, permanent migrants, and temporary migrants from other provinces
Once again, permanent migrants had no universal advantage over temporary migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

21. Effect of hukou identity on migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

22. Effect of hukou identity on migration
There was no negative effect of hukou status on temporary migrants from the same county-level units
Permanent migrants only had advantage over temporary migrants from outside the county-level units or other provinces
Non-migrants with local hukou also had no clear advantage over temporary migrants especially agricultural population
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

23. Conclusions
As a society with a dual structure of urban and rural sectors, an important research question is
whether an individual’s mobility and migration outcome are constrained and affected by their hukou identity and hukou status in China
This paper argues that the migration outcome of temporary migrants depends on
not only their temporary hukou status
but also their hukou identity largely as agricultural population and low level of education
As revealed in this paper, temporary migrants with hukou identity of non-agricultural population, high level of education or from the same county-level cities
do have higher socio-economic status than non-migrants and even permanent migrants
The observed low status of temporary migrants
being mostly with low level of education, a hukou category of agricultural population and from outside the province
is a result of their education level, hukou identity, temporary hukou status and the spatial scale of inter-provincial migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

24. Conclusions
Although inter-provincial temporary migrants from outside Guangdong do suffer from their temporary hukou status
The fundamental cause of their low socio-economic status after migration
lies in the unfavourable socio-economic environment and educational opportunity at their rural origin with a hukou identity of agricultural population
Left photo, accessed on 5 July 2007,
Left photo, accessed on 5 July 2007,
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

25. Conclusions The story goes on as follows
The rural population is assigned a hukou identity of agricultural population
Such population has less chance to receive secondary or higher education either because of lack of the provision of education in rural areas
The local urban population is assigned a hukou identity of non-agricultural population, is better educated and is given more opportunities for permanent migration
Thus permanent migrants are mainly better educated with hukou identity of non-agricultural population while temporary migrants are mainly poor educated with hukou identity of agricultural population
Such temporary migrants especially those from other provinces further surfer from institutional and job market discrimination even with the same level of education in comparison with permanent migrants or non-migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography

26. Thank You! Photo Ming Pao 12 Feb 2007
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography