1. Dr. Ranu Varshney & Nisha Chaturvedi
Knowledge and Knowledge Generation Process By
Dr. Ranu Varshney & Nisha Chaturvedi

2. Conception of Knowing
The word “Knowledge” is significantly ambiguous- as are its equivalents in other languages:
Greek: episteme (epistemology)
The principal meaning of these words can be arranged into three groups:
i. cognitive abilities, sometimes even motor abilities; as know German, know how to walk/use the library/give a speech.

3. ii. Personal experience and corresponding recognitional abilities: know a person by name or by sight, know fear/love/disappointment, know New York/ Boston/ the neighbour university campus. iii. Single meaning-facts gathered by study, observation, or experience and conclusion inferred from such facts: a. What the dictionary describes as knowledge of facts can be described more plainly as knowledge-that. b. Knowledge that snow is white, that green is green, or that 2+2=4.

4. The last sort of knowledge that is central to recent work is Epistemology.
@Some philosophers, notably Bertrand Russell, considered acquaintance or direct experience the fundamental source of empirical knowledge; for them, knowledge-that ultimately arises from knowledge of.
Epistemology:
in English, Epistomo (Knowledge)+Logos (Theory)
The Dictionary of Philosophy: Epistemology is the branch of Philosophy which investigates the origin, structure, method and

5. validity of Knowledge.
Descartes is the first philosopher who started to think on these questions systematically.
Some present philosophers assume that Epistemology is the heart of philosophy.
According to Kant, Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition.
According to Fichte, Philosophy is the doctrine or service of Knowledge.

6. Origin of Knowledge:
How Knowledge originates?
Many controversies.
Rationalism: The basis of Knowledge is only Rational.
By birth; in beginning, unexpressed or unclear; but gradually clear and comprehensive.
Leibniz announced all concepts come by birth.
Empiricism: There is nothing as such which come first in mind.
To collect Knowledge empirically.
The basis of Knowledge is only experience.
Locke was against Rationalism and said that no

7. Criticism: Contract idea. Not only Rationalism or not only Empiricism.
concept comes by birth. All concepts origin empirically.
Criticism: Contract idea.
Not only Rationalism or not only Empiricism.
First, collect the external facts by senses or empirically which are unsystematic and uncorrelated.
Then, convert a systematic and correlated Knowledge rationally.
So, knowledge is the result of mixture of Rationalism and Empiricism.
This principal is the critical theory of Kant.
Intuitionism: The basis of Knowledge is intuition.
Without any means, attainment of Knowledge by intuition is Intuitionism.

8. Nature of Knowledge:
Rationalism: Nature of Knowledge is intelligence.
Knowledge is already present in intelligence of the child in form of concepts by birth.
Empiricism: Nature of Knowledge is empirical.
Knowledge is empirical which constructs by the self-sensation and the sensation of senses.
Criticism: Nature of Knowledge is critical.
Both Rational and Empirical.
Intuitionism: Nature of Knowledge is intuitional.

9. Source of Knowledge:
Rationalism: Intelligence.
Empiricism: Not birth, experience through senses.
Criticism: both birth & experience through senses.
Intuitionism: Intuition.
Limits of Knowledge:
Rationalism: Human intelligence is limit of K.
No intelligence/Rational, No Knowledge.
Empiricism: All Knowledge begins with experience and ends with it.
The limit of Knowledge is in the experience through senses.

10. Criticism: Human intelligence and experience through senses are the limits of Knowledge.
There is no knowledge which could not get through both of it.
Intuitionism: Human intelligence and experiences have limits, but intuition has no limit.
So, Knowledge through intuition is unlimited.
Validity of knowledge:
Most controversial.
Valid Knowledge that matches between idea and real things.
For example: the rose is red and triangle has three lines.

11. But according to another group, the valid knowledge means the practical utilization of the knowledge.
In other words, if it has no practical utilization of Knowledge, it is not valid knowledge.
Focus Question of Epistemology:
What is K? What is not k?
What is nature of K? What is nit nature of K?
What is the source of K? What is not the source of K?
What is the method of K? What is the method of K?

12. Method of Knowledge Generation
Observe
Experience
Discuss/Interact
Organising and Classification
Accumulate
Interpret
Self-Analysis
Intuition
Imitation

13. Express
Create
Manipulate
Exploration
Synthesis
Reasoning
Dialogue
Assimilate
Add, Subtract
Classify, Categorize

14. Specialization & organization of knowledge: Birth of discipline
With the increasing funds of knowledge, they started to explore the nature more and more to make their life more meaningful.
Human began to practice agriculture, domesticating plants and animals, which allowed for the growth of civilization.
Division of labour in early societies of human beings also enforced such categorization of Knowledge.
E.g. those who were efficient in farming, tried to accumulate more knowledge of his field; those who could estimate time on the basis of solar and lunar movements became earlier astrologer.

15. The conception of difference and likeness in various thoughts and observations led human beings towards differentiation and specialization of Knowledge.
During this process of specialization, a huge body of experiences was gained from a variety of fields and a number of important discoveries and invention were made.
Specialization resulted in the organization of Knowledge of various field.
This organized body of knowledge of a particular field was termed as ‘discipline’.
A discipline is a product of human experience having distinct origin, subject matter, theoretical foundation and research methodology.

16. Each discipline has a structure of Knowledge.
The structure of knowledge across subject is quite varied depending upon what and how knowledge is generated in these areas.
Disciplines are born when there is a need for production of knowledge now not available.
They die when they can no longer simplify our understanding of life, do not give ways to relate these factors, and do generate new questions for investigation.
E.g. specialization of knowledge in the fields of biology and chemistry gave birth to biochemistry.
Similarly new disciplines like oceanography, geophysics, IT & management have emerged because of their great relevance to the developing world.

17. Suggested Readings
Sharma, R.A. (2009). Tatvamimansa, gyanmimansa, mulyamimansa aur shikhsha. Meerut: R. Lal Book Depo.
Sharma, R.A. (2009). Shikhsha darshan. Meerut: R. Lal Book Depo.
Lal, Raman Bihari (2011). Shikhsha ke darshanik evam samajshastriye adhar. Meerut: Rastogi Publication.
Nigam, Shobha (2006). Pashchatya darshan. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas.
Aggrawal, Rajshri (2008). Darshanshastra ka parichay. Bhopal: Madhya Pradesh hindi Grantha

18. Academy.
Russell, S. (2009). Human knowledge, its scope and limits. Taylor & francis ltd.
Fichte, J.G. (2011). The science of knowledge: With the first and second. Nabu Press.
Lehrer, Keith (2000). Theory of knowledge. PHI, India.