2. WAYS OF KNOWING 1.INTUITION OR TENACITY I just "feel it" 2.AUTHORITY Bible, grandmother, expert 3.LOGIC Deducing the answer 4.SCIENCE Empirical test (focus for our class)

3. …each is useful Some are best for particular questions. For example, what is the fastest way to Calgary? 1.WHICH WAYS OF KNOWING WOULD "WORK?" 2.WHICH IS “BEST?”

4. THEORY Statement of how one thing causes another, usually involving TESTABLE hypotheses EXAMPLE OBSERVATION: Trees change colour in the fall. THEORIES: The great hunter causes trees to change colour in the fall. Trees change colour in the fall because of frost. Trees change colour in the fall because of they receive less light.

5. A GOOD THEORY: EXPLAINS current observations PREDICTS future events is USEFUL (practical applications) is SIMPLE[R] than other explanations (parsimonious) is TESTABLE (theory can be falsified)

6. Theory versus Observation Observation (Variables) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Theory (Concepts)

7. The “wheel of science” (Bacon) Observation Generalization Theory Hypothesis DEDUCTIONDEDUCTION INDUCTIONINDUCTION

8. From abstract to empirical Concept A: Punishment Concept B: Attendance Yelling at students Increases attendance by 50% ABSTRACT EMPIRICAL Observable Theoretical

9. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD What’s GOOD about this method? 1.PURPOSIVE 2.RIGOROUS 3.TESTABLE 4.OBJECTIVE 5.FALSIFYABLE

10. Falsification (Popper) 1.Make a Prediction 2.Establish Ground Rules 3.Gather Data 4.Compare Results to Predictions a.If consistent, hypothesis was supported (NOT proven) b.If not, revise hypothesis and retest

11. Advances in Science (Kuhn) “Normal” science –Development and testing of compatible theories “Paradigm shifts” –Radical re-orientation Examples: –Astronomy –Marketing

12. Astronomy: Aristotle The Elements Earth Water Air, Fire Sun Stars

13. Astronomy: Ptolemy

14. Astronomy: Copernicus Kuhn’s “paradigm shift” Earth Sun

15. CONCLUSION Data don’t “speak for themselves” Must know what to look for Must know how to interpret the findings Must understand underlying THEORY

16. Theories are nets cast to catch what we call “the world”: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it. We endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer. Karl R. Popper Quote of the Day

17. The End