1. + Emic Vs Etic Use examples to explain the emic and etic concepts

2. + Inductive Vs Deductive thinking Yes this is TOK and no it isn’t awful … ok it is a bit, but it’s not that awful

3. + Deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. The scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories.

4. + Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations. In other words, start with the observation and then move to toward a hypothesis. This requires a certain amount of objectivity and openness on the part of the researcher.

5. + The Phenomenological approach Was a reaction to the dominant trend of positivism - that is, a highly deductive approach based on the scientific method which hoped to establish universal laws of human behaviour. Participants were objectified, and their own subjective experience was being ignored. In fact, in the positivist approach, participants were called "subjects." Today, as psychologists like Carl Rogers have changed our understanding of psychology, we now call them "participants." Instead of calling people "patients," we now call them "clients." The p approach focuses on three important factors. 1) data is descriptive. The focus is not on quantitative data, but rather on qualitative data. It is a much more holistic approach to looking at a participant's behaviour. 2) the process of research emphasizes inductive approaches. The idea is that we can learn from individual experience and reality. 3) important to recognize that "we all create our own truth." This is an existentialist focus of the approach. This recognizes the subjective nature of a lot of research and the need to confirm one's findings through discussion with the participant. When agreement can be reached between the researcher and the participant as to the interpretation of findings, then we can say that the research is credible. The phenomenological approach has given us such methods as the narrative interview. In addition, they use the practice of back translation.

6. + Etic approaches Much of the early research in psychology used an "etic" approach - that is, their research has the following characteristics: They decided what to study and how to analyze it before arriving in the field. They applied and compared their research findings globally - with the assumption that there was some commonality of behaviour among all cultures. They analysed behaviour using established theories and data collection methods from their culture or from "mainstream" psychology. "Professionals" carried out the research upon arrival.

7. + Strengths and limitations of the Etic approach The research is often replicable - allowing researchers to establish the reliability of the findings. The research process is less time consuming and less expensive. Findings may actually have global applications which could improve the situation for many people. The imposed etic - that is, a sense of ethnocentrism that biases the researcher toward what is "correct" or "normal" behaviour. It makes the researcher blind to important differences and why they exist. The researchers adopt instruments for assessment rather than adapting or developing new ones that have meaning for the participants. Instruments include tests, questionnaires, diagnostic tools and treatments for disorders.

8. + Emic approaches Emic approaches use a more phenomenological and inductive approach to the study of culture. Emic approaches have the following characteristics: Researchers first immerse themselves in the culture in order to develop understanding. They do not come right into the field and carry out research. There is no hypothesis to start off the research. Research questions are developed by interactions within the local culture. The researchers adapt or assemble instruments for assessment through interaction with indigenous researchers or members of the community to be studied. When they adapt an instrument, they are making changes to an existing instrument in order to make it more relevant to the participants so that the findings will reflect their cultural realities. For example, Cole & Scribner adapted their instrument in order to make sure that the vocabulary on the lists was relevant to the Liberian children. When researchers assemble an instrument, they are basing the entire concept and structure of the instrument on the culture which they are now immersed in. For example, Bolton worked with Rwanda mental health leaders to assemble an instrument that would help to determine the mental health of survivors of the Rwandan genocide.Bolton The goal is not to draw universal conclusions about human behaviour, but rather to apply the findings in the culture in which the research was done. It is possible, however, that over time several emic studies may lead to psychologists noting trends among certain cultures.

9. + Strengths and limitations of the Emic approach It is problem focused and comes up with solutions that can be applied to directly to the community being studied. The results are confirmed by the participants, so we can know that the interpretations of the research do reflect the realities of the culture. Has the potential to be more objective. Emic approaches take a long time and can be very expensive. Instruments may not be highly reliable, or information may not yet be available about the reliability of the instrument within that culture. The etic/emic dichotomy may not be as clear as we think. Often cultural psychologists start with an imposed etic approach and then move on to an emic approach. It is perhaps not reasonable to expect that a researcher would go into a culture with no idea of what s/he would want to study and only develop a research question after a totally objective long-term interaction with a local culture.