2. Balancing Equations Reactants  Products This means that you HAVE to have the same number of atoms on the left and right hand sides of the equation.

3. What do the numbers mean? Subscript numbers refer only to the single element that the number is immediately after. No number = 1 For example: CO 2  1 x C and 2 x O Full size numbers (2,3,4) refer to the whole molecule immediately after the number. No number = 1 For example: 2H 2 SO 4  2 molecules of sulphuric acid

4. Changing numbers You can only change BIG numbers. If you change subscript numbers then you change the chemical!

5. An example: H 2 + O 2  H 2 O

6. Try this one: Na + HCl  NaCl + H 2

7. Percentage yields When you are doing a chemical reaction you don’t necessarily get as much product as you think you should because not all of the reactants react 100%, or some gas might escape, or you drop a bit… Lots of reasons.

8. Step 1: How much should you have? You work this out by looking at the formula for the equation: 2Mg + O 2  2MgO This tells us that 2 moles of Mg reacts with 1 mole of oxygen to give 2 moles of MgO

9. 2Mg + O 2  2MgO So, if 48g of Mg was reacted with unlimited oxygen, how much MgO would you expect? A r of Mg is 24. Therefore 48g is 2 moles. This means we must expect 2 moles of MgO M r of MgO = 24+16 = 40 Therefore the expected mass of MgO is 80g

10. Percentage yield You can calculate % yield by: % yield = (actual mass / expected mass ) x 100 In this case, if we got 60g of MgO: % yield = 60/80 = 75%

11. 1) C + O 2  CO 2 How many moles are there in 8.8g of CO 2 ? Therefore, how many moles of C and O 2 would I need to produce this much CO 2 ? What masses of C and O 2 required for this reaction? 2)CaCO 3  CaO + CO 2 How much calcium oxide is produced by heating 25 g of calcium carbonate?

12. What is an empirical formula? A formula giving the proportions of the elements present in a compound but not the actual numbers or arrangement of atoms.

13. What is the ratio of atoms? QuestionRatio Hydrogen to oxygen atoms in H 2 O Copper to Oxygen in CuO Magnesium to Chlorine in MgCl 2 Carbon to Hydrogen in Propene C 3 H 6 Carbon to Hydrogen in acetic acid CH 3 COOH Can you simplify any of the ratios?

14. What is the ratio of atoms? QuestionRatio Hydrogen to oxygen atoms in H 2 O 2:1 Copper to Oxygen in CuO 1:1 Magnesium to Chlorine in MgCl 2 1:2 Carbon to Hydrogen in Propene C 3 H 6 3:6 can be simplified to 1:2 Carbon to Hydrogen in acetic acid CH 3 COOH 2:4 can be simplified to 1:2

15. The formula that gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. Ratios are in WHOLE NUMBERS ONLY (to represent atoms) FOR YOUR GLOSSARY: Empirical Formula Finished? 1 to 10 in your book for a formula challenge!

16. Write down the empirical formula for these molecules? 1.Water – H 2 O 2.Sulfur – S 8 3.Hexane – C 6 H 14 4.Benzene – C 6 H 6 5.Carbon dioxide - CO 2 6.Oxygen - O 2 7.Propene - C 3 H 6 8.Octene - C 4 H 8 9.Nitrogen - N 2 10.Calcium Carbonate - CaCO 3 YOU HAVE 5 MINUTES

17. Write down the empirical formula for these molecules 1.Water – H 2 OH 2 O 2.Sulfur – S 8 S 3.Hexane – C 6 H 14 C 3 H 7 4.Benzene – C 6 H 6 CH 5.Carbon dioxide – CO 2 CO 2 6.Oxygen - O 2 O 7.Propene - C 3 H 6 CH 2 8.Octene - C 4 H 8 CH 2 9.Nitrogen - N 2 N 10.Calcium Carbonate - CaCO 3 CaCO 3 Mark these now! What was your score out of 10?

18. Step 1: Divide the mass or % of each element by its RAM (find MOLES of each). Step 2: Divide both mole amounts by the smaller number. Step 3: Work out the smallest possible whole number ratio = simplest ratio of atoms. Step 4: Express as a formula. Calculating Empirical Formula-Method Sample question: If 22.55% of phosphorus chloride is phosphorous, what is the empirical formula of the compound? (P=31, Cl=35.5)

19. Calculating empirical formula from a percentage composition… Weights or Weight percentages 22.55% = P 77.45 =Cl Convert into moles (Divide by Relative Atomic Mass Ar) 22.55/31 = 0.73 77.45/35.5 = 2.18 Write as a mole ratio (this gives a ratio between elements) 0.73 : 2.18 Convert to whole number ratio (by dividing by smallest number) /0.73 1:3 Express as formulaPCl 3 If 22.55% of phosphorus chloride is phosphorous, what is the empirical formula of the compound? (P=31, Cl=35.5) 1.A compound which contains 11.6% nitrogen and 88.4% chlorine. 2. A compound which contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen. 3. A compound which contains 37.21% carbon, 7.75% hydrogen and 55.04% chlorine.

20. Questions 1. A compound which contains 11.6% nitrogen and 88.4% chlorine. 2. A compound which contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen.

21. Calculating empirical formula from a percentage composition… Weights or Weight percentages 11.6 % = N88.4% =Cl Convert into moles (Divide by Relative Atomic Mass Ar) 11.6 / 14 = 0.828571 88.4/35.5 = 2.4901 Write as a mole ratio (this gives a ratio between elements) 0.8285:2.4901 Convert to whole number ratio (by dividing by smallest number) 1:3 Express as formulaNCl 3 A compound which contains 11.6% nitrogen and 88.4% chlorine.

22. Calculating empirical formula from a percentage composition… Weights or Weight percentages 40%60% Convert into moles (Divide by Relative Atomic Mass Ar) 40/32 = 1.25 60/16 = 3.75 Write as a mole ratio (this gives a ratio between elements) 1.25:3.75 Convert to whole number ratio (by dividing by smallest number) 1:3 Express as formulaSO 3 A compound which contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen? (S= 32, 0=16)

23. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spec

26. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid and are particularly useful when the amount of a sample is very small.

27. There are pros and cons though! AdvantagesDisadvantages Highly accurate and sensitiveExpensive Relatively quick resultsSpecialist training required Can analyse very small samples Results can be interpreted only by comparison with known substances You need to know the pros and cons for your exam!

28. Gas Chromatography Gas chromatography is often used with mass spectrometry. A sample made of a mixture of chemicals is injected into a gas chromatography machine in order to separate the mixture. The separate samples then go into a mass spectrometer for identification. A mass spectrometer is a device for finding the mass of atoms and groups of atoms. The mass spectrometer can also give the relative molecular mass of each of the substances separated in the column. Gas chromatography is often used with mass spectrometry. A sample made of a mixture of chemicals is injected into a gas chromatography machine in order to separate the mixture. The separate samples then go into a mass spectrometer for identification. A mass spectrometer is a device for finding the mass of atoms and groups of atoms. The mass spectrometer can also give the relative molecular mass of each of the substances separated in the column.

29. Gas Chromatography Used to separate a mixture of compounds, like paper chromatography, but the sample is vaporised first Can detect and identify compounds in tiny amounts of a sample, e.g. can be used to detect the presence of banned drugs in samples from athletes. Used to separate a mixture of compounds, like paper chromatography, but the sample is vaporised first Can detect and identify compounds in tiny amounts of a sample, e.g. can be used to detect the presence of banned drugs in samples from athletes.

30. Gas Chromatography- why use it? Gas chromatography separates mixtures better than paper and thin-layer. Has high separating power. Can be used to trace the source of pollution incidents by measuring exact characteristics of oil spill Very small amounts of sample are needed for gas chromatography Can detect and identify compounds in trace amounts (tiny amounts) Can be used to detect the presence of banned drugs in samples from athletes. Gas chromatography separates mixtures better than paper and thin-layer. Has high separating power. Can be used to trace the source of pollution incidents by measuring exact characteristics of oil spill Very small amounts of sample are needed for gas chromatography Can detect and identify compounds in trace amounts (tiny amounts) Can be used to detect the presence of banned drugs in samples from athletes.

31. How it works 1.A small amount of sample is injected into one end of the heated column, where it turns to vapour (gas)

32. How it works 2: The substance is carried by the carrier gas through the tube

33. How it works 3: The carrier gas carries the sample through the stationary phase (the liquid)

34. How it works 4: The detector records the arrival of each chemical from the column.

35. How it works 5: Each arrival registers as a peak of the chromatogram.

36. OH – ion + H + ions H 2 O = Water Alkali + Acid Salt + Water Sodium + Hydrochloric Hydroxide Acid Sodium Chloride + Water For example Neutralisation of Acids and Alkalis Acids are a source of H + ions. Alkalis are a source of OH – ions. Na + OH – + H + Cl – – Na + Cl – + H 2 O

37. AcidAlkaliSalt Hydrochloric AcidPotassium Hydroxide Sulfuric AcidSodium Hydroxide Nitric AcidSilver Hydroxide Barium HydroxideBarium Sulfate Hydrobromic AcidCalcium Bromide Name that Salt

38. AcidAlkaliSalt Hydrochloric Acid HCl Potassium Hydroxide KOH Potassium Chloride KCl Sulfuric Acid H 2 SO 4 Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Sodium Sulfate Na 2 SO 4 Nitric Acid HNO 3 Silver Hydroxide AgOH Silver Nitrate AgNO 3 Sulfuric Acid H 2 SO 4 Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH) 2 Barium Sulfate BaSO 4 Hydrobromic Acid HBr Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 Calcium Bromide CaBr 2 Name that Salt answers

39. Making and isolating salts Neutralisation is a very clean process… We take an acid and alkali… And just get a salt and water. Let the water evaporate and we’ll just be left with the crystallised salt… …as long as we start with just the right amount of acid and alkali so neither is left over. An indicator could help – we’ll know when neutral.

40. Ammonium + Nitric Hydroxide Acid Ammonium + Water Nitrate Making and isolating ammonium nitrate NH 4 OH + HNO 3 NH 4 NO 3 + H 2 O Ammonium nitrate is a very important fertiliser. It is highly soluble in water and easily taken up from the soil by plant roots. It is an essential source of nitrogen for plants to be able to grow. We can cheat this time – ammonia is volatile so we can use an excess and let it evaporate off with the water. Ammonia dissolves in water to form alkaline ammonium hydroxide NH 3 + H 2 O NH 4 + OH --

41. Making insoluble salts Insoluble salts don’t dissolve in water. When formed they precipitate out of solution… This process is called precipitation. Lead iodide, barium sulfate and silver chloride are all examples of insoluble salts. PbI 2 BaSO 4 AgCl

42. Removing ions from solution. Filtration is a very easy, cheap and reliable method of separating solids from liquids. To remove an ion from solution we just need to form an insoluble salt of it. The precipitate can be then filtered off. For example, silver ions can be precipitated when combined with chloride ions.

43. Industry and the environment. Chemical Industry uses a lot of metal ions. These could harm wildlife if the effluent (waste water) is discharged into rivers untreated. Precipitation is used to remove toxic metal ions before they enter the environment. Raising the pH of the water causes insoluble metal hydroxides to precipitate out. Very heavy fines are imposed on any companies that release effluent that exceeds legal limits.