1. McGraw-Hill/IrwinCopyright © 2014 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THINKING LIKE A RESEARCHER Chapter 3

2. 3-2 Learning Objectives Understand... The terminology used by professional researchers employing scientific thinking.

3. 3-3 Language of Research Variables Models Theory Terms used in research Terms used in research Constructs Operational definitions Operational definitions Propositions/ Hypotheses Propositions/ Hypotheses Conceptual schemes Conceptual schemes Concepts

4. 3-4 Language of Research Clear conceptualization of concepts Shared understanding of concepts Success of Research

5. 3-5 Job Redesign Constructs and Concepts

6. 3-6 Operational Definitions: how will we measure the variable? Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior < 30 credit hours 30-50 credit hours 60-89 credit hours > 90 credit hours How can we define the variable “class level of students”?

7. 3-7 A Variable: Property Being Studied Variable Event (being selected for security check) Event (being selected for security check) Act (buying ticket) Act (buying ticket) Characteristic (rebellious daughter)) Characteristic (rebellious daughter)) Trait (sensitive nature) Trait (sensitive nature) Attribute (daughter) Attribute (daughter)

8. 3-8 Types of Variables Dichotomous Male/Female Employed/ Unemployed Male/Female Employed/ Unemployed Discrete (point) Ethnic background Educational level Religious affiliation Ethnic background Educational level Religious affiliation Continuous (line) Income Temperature Age Income Temperature Age

9. 3-9 Independent and Dependent Variables (Also known as…) Independent Variable (IV) Example: £ spent in Advertising Predictor Presumed cause Stimulus Predicted from… Antecedent Manipulated Dependent Variable (DV) Example: £ earned in Sales Criterion Presumed effect Response Predicted to…. Consequence Measured outcome

10. 3-10 Relationships Among Variable Types MV: Moderating Variable)

11. 3-11 Relationships Among Variable Types Control Variable: They may have effect on DV, but we do not want to study them, so we ”control” for them Confounding Variable = type of work done (meeting versus non-meeting), they are MVs or IVs, but found later in the study that we did not take them into account and they ”confounded” the results. If we can measure them later, we can control for them.

12. 3-12 Relationships Among Variable Types IVV = Intervening Variable Also known as Mediating Variable

13. 3-13 Moderating Variables (MV) The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV) Class Exercise: Draw following in box-and-arrow diagrams The switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales (DV) per worker, especially more experienced workers (MV). The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance of higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-supporting income (DV) – particularly among those with a limited education (MV).

14. 3-14 Intervening Variables (IVV) The switch to a commission compensation system (IV) will lead to higher sales (DV) by increasing overall compensation (IVV). A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV).

15. 3-15 Propositions and Hypotheses Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than- average achievement motivation (variable). Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable). Generalization

16. 3-16 Hypothesis is  A proposed explanantion  A conjuncture.  An educated guess.  Yet to be tested Examples  Online retailer’s communication with the ccustomers is related to higher trust from customers  Online retailer’s strong privacy policies are related to higher trust from customers  Online retailer’s web page with user friendliness is related to higher satisfaction from customers 16

17. 3-17 Theory is a series of interrelated hypotheses  Online retailer’s communication with the ccustomers is related to higher trust from customers  Online retailer’s strong privacy policies are related to higher trust from customers  Online retailer’s web page with user friendliness is related to higher satisfaction from customers  xxxxxxxx When theory is depcited as a diagram, it is called ”model”. 17

18. 3-18 Consumer Relationship with Online Retailers 18

19. 3-19 Descriptive Hypothesis Formats Descriptive Hypothesis In Detroit, our potato chip market share stands at 13.7%. Finnish towns are experiencing budget difficulties. Research Question What is the market share for our potato chips in Detroit? Are Finnish towns experiencing budget difficulties?

20. 3-20 Relational Hypotheses Formats Correlational Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product than women who are older than 35. The number of suits sold varies directly with the level of the business cycle. Causal An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved. Loyalty to a grocery store increases the probability of sales of that store’s private brand products.

21. 3-21 The Role of Hypotheses Guide the direction of the study Identify relevant facts Suggest most appropriate research design Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions

22. 3-22 Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses A Strong Hypothesis Adequate Testable Better than rivals

23. 3-23 What is the difference between theories and hypotheses? Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable statements involving concrete occasions. Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve multiple variables. Theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena. To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the situation, we are successful in our explanations and predictions. The following slide has an example of a theory.

24. 3-24 Herzberg’s Two factor Theory Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction caused by two different Set of factors

25. 3-25 Model versus Theory A model is a representation of theory, in 2D, in 3D, in picture, in an equation etc. 25

26. Examples of Models

27. 3-27 Theory within Research

28. 3-28 A Model Based on Justice Theory 28

29. 3-29 The Scientific Method Direct observation Clearly defined variables Clearly defined methods Empirically testable Elimination of alternatives Statistical justification Self-correcting process

30. 3-30 Researchers Encounter problems State problems Propose hypotheses Deduce outcomes Formulate rival hypotheses Devise and conduct empirical tests Draw conclusions

31. 3-31 Why is curiosity important?

32. 3-32 Sound Reasoning ExpositionArgument InductionDeduction Types of Discourse

33. 3-33 Deductive Reasoning: Conclusion must follow from the reasons (premises) given. Premise 1: Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and expensive Premise 1: Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and expensive Premise 2: This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing Premise 2: This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing Conclusion: The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive Conclusion: The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive

34. 3-34 Deductive Reasoning Apply deductive reasoning to this image. What will happen next?

35. 3-35 Inductive Reasoning: Inferring something beyond the evidence presented Why didn’t sales increase during our promotional event?  Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests during the promotional period  A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be effective  A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the promotion

36. 3-36 Why Didn’t Sales Increase?

37. 3-37 Tracy’s Performance

38. 3-38 Key Terms Concept Conceptual scheme Construct Deduction Hypothesis Induction Model Operational definition Proposition Theory Variable  Control  Confounding (CFV)  Dependent (DV)  Extraneous (EV)  Independent (IV)  Intervening (IVV)  Moderating (MV)