1. Fall 2009 Dr. Bobby Franklin

3.  “... [the] systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.” (Kerlinger and Lee, 1999)  systematic process of collecting and analyzing data or information in order to increase our understanding of the phenomena about which we are concerned or interested. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

4.  Experience – may not have a complete understanding of the observed phenomenon  Authority – Use experts - limited ◦ Customs ◦ Traditions ◦ Experience/knowledge

5.  Deductive reasoning – moving from general to specific ◦ True deductions must have true premises ◦ Comes from existing knowledge ◦ Scientific inquiry can’t come from deduction alone ◦ Can link theory and observation ◦ Can help build hypothesis

6.  All men are mortal  The king is a man  The king is mortal  All fish have gills  My pet has gills  My pet is a fish  Poor children are low performers  Joe is poor  Joe will be a low performer

7.  The conclusion can’t be stronger than the premises  To arrive at true conclusions the premises must be correct

8.  Inductive reasoning – using facts to make generalizations about the whole or population  DeductionEvery mammal has lungs  All rabbits are mammals  Every rabbit has lungs  InductionEvery observed rabbit has lungs  Every rabbit has lungs

9.  Perfect induction – every example must be observed  Imperfect induction – use observations from a sample to infer a characteristic of the entire group  Poor children are low performing  A large percentage of poor children are low performing  Children born into poverty have a high probability of being low performing students

10.  “It’s not so much what folks don’t know that causes problems. It’s what they know that ain’t so.” (Artemus Ward)

11.  Scientific approach – a systematic process for obtaining knowledge that is theory driven and centers around a testable hypothesis  Hypothesis – a statement that describes relationships among variables and is assumed to be true and testable

12.  With the scientific approach one reasons what would be found if a hypothesis is true then through systematic observations you confirm or fail to confirm the hypothesis

13. Research (traditional research) vary in complexity and duration, however, research typically has 8 distinct characteristics…  originates with a question or problem  requires a clear articulation of a goal  follows a specific plan of procedure  divides the main problem into sub-problems  guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis  accepts certain critical assumptions  requires the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem  by nature cyclical or helical

14.  State the problem  Hypothesize as to the cause of the problem  Experiments to test each hypothesis  Predict the results  Observe results/collect data  Draw conclusions from results about the hypothesis

15.  Research is always problem solving based….Always should provide an answer to some question.  To avoid making error or drawing erroneous conclusions

16.  All natural phenomena have antecedent (preceding) factors called universal determinism. Under specified conditions certain events will occur  Reliable knowledge is derived only from direct and objective observations

17.  Be skeptical toward the data ◦ findings are tentative and must be verified.  Be objective and impartial ◦ Avoid bias and trying to prove a point  Deal with facts ◦ Don’t interject values just interpret the data  Integrate and systemize their findings ◦ Create order from the data ◦ Seek theories that explain observable phenomena

18.  Theory ◦ Set of interrelated constructs and propositions that presents an explanation of phenomena and allows one to make predictions about relationships among variables related to the phenomena  Law ◦ A statement of fact based on observable phenomena  Gravity, thermodynamics, gas  Death is inevitable  Hypothesis ◦ Prediction about phenomena that can be tested

19.  Theories can be a framework for research  Paradigms also affect research ◦ A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality for the community that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline

20.  Subject matter & situations are very complex with many variables that interact  Observations are difficult and interpretations are often subjective by the observer  Difficult to replicate – never exact- can only be similar

21.  Observer and subjects can inter act – Hawthorne effect  Control is difficult at best – restrictions involved in human research  Measurement difficult – ◦ Not always sure of what you are measuring ◦ Must develop instruments to measure new concepts ◦ Even instruments that seem to measure the same thing may not.

22. Good Research generates dependable data, being driven by practices that are conducted professionally and that can be used reliably for managerial decision making. Characteristically:  Purpose clearly defined (define the scope, limitations, and precise meanings)  Research process detailed  Research design thoroughly planned ( to avoid bias)

23.  High ethical standards applied  Limitations frankly revealed  Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs  Findings presented unambiguously  Conclusions justified  Researcher’s experience reflected