1. CS 240A: Databases and Knowledge Bases Introduction to Active Databases Carlo Zaniolo Department of Computer Science University of California, Los Angeles Notes From Chapter 2 of Advanced Database Systems by Zaniolo, Ceri, Faloutsos, Snodgrass, Subrahmanian and Zicari Morgan Kaufmann, 1997

2. Active Database Systems  An integrated facility for creating and executing production rules from within a database system.  A typical database production rule: when event if condition then action

3. Active Database Systems (Cont’)  Powerful and uniform mechanism for: - Constraint enforcement - Derived data maintenance - Alerting - Authorization checking - Version management - Resource management - Knowledge management

4. Outline of Slides  Chapter 2: Syntax and Semantics - A Relational Prototype: Starburst - Two Relational Systems: Oracle and DB2 - Features and Products Overview

5. Outline of Slides (Cont’)  Chapter 3: Applications - Applications of Active Rules - Deriving Active Rules for Constraint Management - Deriving Active Rules for View Maintenance - Rules for Replication - Rules for Workflow Management - Business Rules  View Maintenance design using deductive rules

6. Outline of Slides (Cont’)  Chapter 4: Design Principles - Properties of Active Rules and Rule Analysis - Rule Modularization - Rule Debugging and Monitoring - Rule Design: IDEA Methodology (pointer) - Conclusion

7. A Relational Example: Starburst  Designed and built at IBM Almaden  Chief Engineer: Jennifer Widom  Syntax based on SQL  Semantics is set-oriented - Triggering based on (arbitrary) sets of changes - Actions perform (arbitrary) sets of changes - Conditions and actions can refer to sets of changes  Instructions: create, drop, alter, deactivate, activate

8. Rule Creation ::= CREATE RULE ON WHEN [ IF ] THEN SQL-statements [ PRECEDES ] [ FOLLOWS ] := INSERTED | DELETED | UPDATED [( column-names>) ]

9. Rule Creation (Cont’)  Triggering operations: - inserted, deleted, updated, updated(c 1,..,c n )  Condition: arbitrary SQL predicate  Actions: any database operations insert, delete, update, select, rollback, create table, etc.  Precedes and Follows: for rule ordering

10. Example Rules Salary control rule: CREATE RULE SalaryControl ON Emp WHEN INSERTED, DELETED, UPDATED (Sal) IF (SELECT AVG (Sal) FROM Emp ) >100 THEN UPDATE Emp SET Sal =.9 * Sal

11. Example Rules (Cont’)  High paid rule: CREATE RULE HighPaid ON Emp WHEN INSERTED IF EXISTS (SELECT * FROM INSERTED WHERE Sal > 100) THEN INSERT INTO HighPaidEmp (SELECT * FROM INSERTED WHERE Sal > 100) FOLLOWS SalaryControl ____________________________________ Errata: ADS book has “FOLLOWS AvgSal”

12. Transition Tables  Logical tables storing changes that triggered rule  Can appear anywhere in condition and action  References restricted to triggering operations: inserted deleted new-updated old-updated

13. Rule Execution Semantics (1)  Rules processed at commit point of each transaction  Transaction's changes are initial triggering transition  Rules create additional transitions which may trigger other rules or themselves  Each rule looks at set of changes since last considered  When multiple rules triggered, pick one based on partial ordering

14. Example of Rule Execution  Initial state: Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael 90 110

15. Example of Rule Execution (Cont’) Transaction inserts tuples: (Rick, 150) and (John, 120) Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael Rick John 90 110 150 120 Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael 90 110

16. Example of Rule Execution (Cont’)  Rule SalaryControl runs: Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael Rick John 81 99 135 108 Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael Rick John 90 110 150 120

17. Rule Execution Semantics (2)  Rule SalaryControl runs again: Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael Rick John 73 89 121 97 Employee Sal Stefano Patrick Michael Rick John 81 99 135 108

18. Rule Execution Semantics (2) (Cont’) Rule Rule HighPaid runs eventually, and inserts into HighPaid only one tuple: Employee Sal Rick 121

19. Oracle  Supports general-purpose triggers, developed according to preliminary documents on the SQL3 standard.  Actions contain arbitrary PL / SQL code.  Two granularities: row-level and statement-level.  Two types of immediate consideration: before and after.  Therefore: 4 Combinations: BEFORE ROW BEFORE STATEMENT AFTER ROW AFTER STATEMENT

20. Trigger Processing 1. Execute the BEFORE STATEMENT trigger. 2. For each row affected: (a) Execute the BEFORE ROW trigger. (b) Lock and change the row. (c) Perform row-level referential integrity and assertion checking. (d) Execute the AFTER ROW trigger. 3. Perform statement-level referential integrity and assertion checking. 4. Execute the AFTER STATEMENT trigger.

21. Syntax ::= CREATE TRIGGER { BEFORE | AFTER } ON [[ REFERENCING ] FOR EACH ROW [ WHEN ( ) ]] ::= INSERT | DELETE | UPDATE [ OF ] ::= OLD AS | NEW AS

22. Example Trigger in Oracle: Reorder Rule CREATE TRIGGER Reorder AFTER UPDATE OF PartOnHand ON Inventory WHEN (New.PartOnHand < New.ReorderPoint FOR EACH ROW DECLARE NUMBER X BEGIN SELECT COUNT(*) INTO X FROM PendingOrders WHERE Part = New.Part; IF X=0 THEN INSERT INTO PendingOrders VALUES (New.Part, New.OrderQuantity, SYSDATE) END IF; END; PL/SQL

23. Example of Execution  Initial state of Inventory:  PendingOrders is initially empty  Transaction(executed on October 10, 1996): T 1 : UPDATE Inventory SET PartOnHand = PartOnHand - 70 WHERE Part = 1 PartOnHand for Part 1 is changed to 130 < ReorderPoint, thus Reorder is triggered: it finds PendingOrders empty and thus inserts there the tuple (1,100,1996-10-10) PartPartOnHandReorderPointReorderQuantity 123123 200 780 450 150 500 400 100 200 120

24. Example of execution (Cont’)  Another transaction (executed on the same day) T 2 : UPDATE Inventory SET PartOnHand = PartOnHand - 60 WHERE Part >= 1  The trigger is executed upon all the tuples, and the condition holds for parts 1 and 3, but a new order is issued for part 3 only—this causes the insertion into PendingOrders of tuple (3,120,1996-10-10) PartPartOnHandReorderPointReorderQuantity 123123 130 780 450 150 500 400 100 200 120

25. DB2  Triggers for DB2 Common Servers defined at the IBM Almaden Research center in 1996.  Influential on the SQL3 standard.  As in Oracle: either BEFORE or AFTER their event, and either a row- or a statement-level granularity.

26. DB2 : Syntax :: = CREATE TRIGGER {BEFORE | AFTER} ON [ REFERENCING ] FOR EACH {ROW | STATEMENT} WHEN ( ) :: = INSERT | DELETE | UPDATE [ ON ] :: = OLD AS | NEW AS new-value-tuple-name | OLDTABLE AS old-value-table-name | NEWTABLE AS new-value-table-name

27. The Before Trigger CREATE TRIGGER emp_trig NO CASCADE BEFORE UPDATE OF salary ON emp REFERENCING OLD AS oldrow NEW AS newrow FOR EACH ROW WHEN (newrow.salary >1.5*oldrow.salary) SET newrow.salary = 1.5*oldrow.salary; Only three kinds of statement are allowed with before rules: 1. SET to modify the values of NEW 2. SIGNAL will nullify the action but not the transaction 3. VALUES used to call a function. For instance instead of SET we could have : BEGIN ATOMIC VALUES(log(‘excessive raise’, CURRENT TIMESTAMP, oldrow.empno)); SIGNAL SQLSTATE ‘70011’ (‘excessive raise for oldrow.empno’) END ATOMIC

28. Semantics of DB2 Triggers  Before-triggers:  Used to detect error conditions and to condition input values (assign values to NEW transition variables).  Read the database state prior to any modification made by the event.  Cannot modify the database by using UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT statements (so they do not activate other triggers).  Several triggers (with either row- or statement-level granularity) can monitor the same event.  A system-determined total order takes into account the triggers’ definition time; row- and statement-level triggers are intertwined in the total order.

29. Semantics of DB2 Triggers (Cont’)  General trigger processing algorithm after statement A : 1. Suspend the execution of A, and save its working storage on a stack. 2. Compute transition values (OLD and NEW) relative to event. 3. Consider and execute all before-triggers relative to event E, possibly changing the NEW transition values. 4. Apply NEW transition values to the database, thus making the state change associated to event E effective. 5. Consider and execute all after-triggers relative to event E. If any of them contains an action A I that activates other triggers, then invoke this processing procedure recursively for A I. 6. Pop from the stack the working storage for A and continue its evaluation.

30. Semantics of DB2 Triggers (Cont’) Revised trigger processing with integrity checking: 4 Apply the NEW transition values to the database, thus making the state change associated to event E effective. For each integrity constraint IC violated by the current state change, let A j be the compensating action (if any) specified with IC, then [a.] Compute the transition values (OLD and NEW) relative to A j. [b.] Execute the before-triggers relative to A j,, possibly changing the NEW transition values. [c.] Apply NEW transition values to the database, thus making the state change associated to A j effective. [d.] Push all after-triggers relative to action into a queue of suspended triggers. Until a quiescent point is reached where all the integrity constraints violated in the course of the computation are compensated.

31. Examples of Triggers on Part(PartNum, Supplier, Cost) Supplier rule: CREATE TRIGGER OneSupplier BEFORE UPDATE OF Supplier ON Part REFERENCING NEW AS N FOR EACH ROW WHEN (N.Supplier IS NULL) SIGNAL SQLSTATE '70005' ('Cannot change supplier to NULL') Audit rule: CREATE TRIGGER Audit AFTER UPDATE ON Part REFERENCING OLDTABLE AS OT FOR EACH STATEMENT INSERT INTO AuditSupplier VALUES(USER, CURRENTDATE, (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM OT))

32. Example (cont.) Part PartNo SupplierCost 1Jones150 2Taylor500 3 HDD 400 4Jones800 Distributor Supplier City State JonesPalo AltoCA TaylorNewarkNJ HDDAtlanta GE Say that the default value is HDD … FOREIGN KEY (Supplier) REFERENCES Distributor ON DELETE SET DEFAULT  SIGNAL: rolls back the effect of a statement, while letting the transaction proceed.  SIGNAL and SET are often used with before triggers.

33. Part PartNo SupplierCost 1Jones150 2Taylor500 3 HDD 400 4Jones800 Distributor Supplier City State JonesPalo AltoCA TaylorNewarkNJ HDDAtlanta GE FOREIGN KEY (Supplier) REFERENCES Distributor ON DELETE SET DEFAULT (i.e. HDD ) CREATE TRIGGER OneSupplier BEFORE UPDATE OF Supplier ON Part REFERENCING NEW AS N FOR EACH ROW WHEN (N.Supplier IS NULL) SIGNAL SQLSTATE ‘70005 (…) CREATE TRIGGER Audit AFTER UPDATE ON Part REFERENCING OLDTABLE AS OT FOR EACH STATEMENT INSERT INTO AuditSupplier VALUES(USER, CURRENTDATE, (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM OT)) DELETE FROM Distributor WHERE State =`CA ’ Example (cont.)

34. Execution 1. Event:DELETE FROM Distributor WHERE State =`CA’ 2. No rule is specified for this event, but the FK constraint updates Jones with HDD in the first and last tuple of Part the OLD and NEW tables for Part are set accordingly. 3. The before rule is evaluated on the updates of point 2, but it is not fired since the WHEN condition fails. 4. The updates of point 2 are written onto the actual table Distributor (well, the in-memory copy, that will be then written to disk at transaction commit time). 5. It is now the turn of the after rules. The AuditSupplier rule is triggered, which adds to the Audit table the tuple: (Bill, 1996-10-10, 2)

35. Question--homework What happens if we change the FK corrective action to: FOREIGN KEY (Supplier) REFERENCES Distributor ON DELETE SET NULL

36. Part PartNo SupplierCost 1Jones150 2Taylor500 3 HDD 400 4Jones800 Distributor Supplier City State JonesPalo AltoCA TaylorNewarkNJ HDDAtlanta GE FOREIGN KEY (Supplier) REFERENCES Distributor ON DELETE SET NULL CREATE TRIGGER OneSupplier BEFORE UPDATE OF Supplier ON Part REFERENCING NEW AS N FOR EACH ROW WHEN (N.Supplier IS NULL) SIGNAL SQLSTATE … CREATE TRIGGER Audit AFTER UPDATE ON Part REFERENCING OLDTABLE AS OT FOR EACH STATEMENT INSERT INTO AuditSupplier VALUES(USER, CURRENTDATE, (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM OT)) Given the DB below, What happen when the user issues the following: DELETE FROM Distributor WHERE State =`CA ’

37. Taxonomy of ECAs  Events and Conditions: DB changes, Retrievals, Time related events, composite events, application defined …  Actions: DB changes, messages, stored procedures, grant privileges, activate rules, arbitrary programs  Consideration and Execution:  Immediate Before  Immediate After  Deferred (till the end of transaction)  Detached (in another transaction)  Granularity: row or statement  SQL:1999 attempts to put a limit on these many alternatives. Still semantics is very complex.

38. Logical Complexity  The XCON experience: large rules sets supporting a complex application---unmanageable.  Use ECAs only in rather simple and well understood applications (Ch 3)  Static analysis to predict and limit dynamic interactions between rules and recursive triggering (Ch 4).