1. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slide Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor, Florence-Darlington Technical College Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PART A 5 The Skeletal System

2. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Skeletal System  Parts of the skeletal system  Bones (skeleton)  Joints  Cartilages  Ligaments  Two subdivisions of the skeleton  Axial skeleton  Appendicular skeleton

3. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functions of Bones  Support the body  Protect soft organs  Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles  Store minerals and fats  Blood cell formation

4. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Human Body  The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Two basic types of bone tissue  Compact bone  Homogeneous  Spongy bone  Small needle-like pieces of bone  Many open spaces Figure 5.2b

5. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Figure 5.1

6. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones  Long bones  Typically longer than they are wide  Have a shaft with heads at both ends  Contain mostly compact bone  Example :  Femur  Humerus

7. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones Figure 5.1a

8. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones  Short bones  Generally cube-shape  Contain mostly spongy bone  Example :  Carpals  Tarsals

9. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones Figure 5.1b

10. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones  Flat bones  Thin, flattened, and usually curved  Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone  Example :  Skull  Ribs  Sternum

11. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones Figure 5.1c

12. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones  Irregular bones  Irregular shape  Do not fit into other bone classification categories  Example :  Vertebrae  Hip bones

13. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classification of Bones Figure 5.1d

14. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone  Diaphysis  Shaft  Composed of compact bone  Epiphysis  Ends of the bone  Composed mostly of spongy bone

15. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone Figure 5.2a

16. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone  Periosteum  Outside covering of the diaphysis  Fibrous connective tissue membrane  Sharpey’s fibers  Secure periosteum to underlying bone  Arteries  Supply bone cells with nutrients

17. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone Figure 5.2c

18. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone  Articular cartilage  Covers the external surface of the epiphyses  Made of hyaline cartilage  Decreases friction at joint surfaces

19. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone  Epiphyseal plate  Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone  Epiphyseal line  Remnant of the epiphyseal plate  Seen in adult bones

20. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone Figure 5.2a

21. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone  Medullary cavity  Cavity inside of the shaft  Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults  Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

22. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomy of a Long Bone Figure 5.2a

23. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Markings  Surface features of bones  Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments  Passages for nerves and blood vessels  Categories of bone markings  Projections or processes—grow out from the bone surface  Depressions or cavities—indentations

24. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Markings Table 5.1 (1 of 2)

25. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Markings Table 5.1 (2 of 2)

26. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Osteon (Haversian system)  A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings  Central (Haversian) canal  Opening in the center of an osteon  Carries blood vessels and nerves  Perforating (Volkman’s) canal  Canal perpendicular to the central canal  Carries blood vessels and nerves

27. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Figure 5.3a

28. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Lacunae  Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)  Arranged in concentric rings  Lamellae  Rings around the central canal  Sites of lacunae

29. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Figure 5.3b–c

30. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Canaliculi  Tiny canals  Radiate from the central canal to lacunae  Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply

31. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy of Bone Figure 5.3b

32. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Formation of the Human Skeleton  In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage  During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone  Cartilage remains in isolated areas  Bridge of the nose  Parts of ribs  Joints

33. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Growth (Ossification)  Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood  New cartilage is continuously formed  Older cartilage becomes ossified  Cartilage is broken down  Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity  Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts

34. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bone Growth (Ossification)  Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops  Bones are remodeled in response to two factors  Blood calcium levels  Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton  Bones grow in width (called appositional growth)

35. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4a Bone starting to replace cartilage Epiphyseal plate cartilage Articular cartilage Spongy bone In a childIn a fetusIn an embryo New bone forming Growth in bone width Growth in bone length Epiphyseal plate cartilage New bone forming Blood vessels Hyaline cartilage New center of bone growth Medullary cavity Bone collar Hyaline cartilage model (a)

36. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4a, step 1 Bone starting to replace cartilage In an embryo Bone collar Hyaline cartilage model (a)

37. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4a, step 2 Bone starting to replace cartilage In a fetusIn an embryo Growth in bone length Blood vessels Hyaline cartilage New center of bone growth Medullary cavity Bone collar Hyaline cartilage model (a)

38. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4a, step 3 Bone starting to replace cartilage Epiphyseal plate cartilage Articular cartilage Spongy bone In a childIn a fetusIn an embryo New bone forming Growth in bone width Growth in bone length Epiphyseal plate cartilage New bone forming Blood vessels Hyaline cartilage New center of bone growth Medullary cavity Bone collar Hyaline cartilage model (a)

39. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Long Bone Formation and Growth Figure 5.4b

40. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Bone Cells  Osteocytes—mature bone cells  Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells  Osteoclasts—bone-destroying cells  Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in response to parathyroid hormone  Bone remodeling is performed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

41. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Fetal Skull  The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length  Fontanels—fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones  Allow the brain to grow  Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

42. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Fetal Skull Figure 5.13a

43. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Fetal Skull Figure 5.13b

44. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column  Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location  There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs  Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck  Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region  Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back

45. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column  Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones  Sacrum  Coccyx

46. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column Figure 5.14

47. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column  The spine has a normal curvature  Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions  Present from birth  Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions  Develop after birth

48. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column Figure 5.15

49. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Vertebral Column Figure 5.16

50. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings A Typical Vertebrae, Superior View Figure 5.17

51. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Figure 5.18a

52. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Figure 5.18b

53. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Figure 5.18c

54. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Regional Characteristics of Vertebrae Figure 5.18d

55. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sacrum and Coccyx  Sacrum  Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae  Coccyx  Formed from the fusion of three to five vertebrae  “Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that other vertebrates have

56. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sacrum and Coccyx Figure 5.19

57. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Bony Thorax  Forms a cage to protect major organs  Consists of three parts  Sternum  Ribs  True ribs (pairs 1–7)  False ribs (pairs 8–12)  Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)  Thoracic vertebrae

58. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Bony Thorax Figure 5.20a

59. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Appendicular Skeleton  Composed of 126 bones  Limbs (appendages)  Pectoral girdle  Pelvic girdle

60. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Appendicular Skeleton Figure 5.6a

61. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Appendicular Skeleton Figure 5.6b

62. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle  Composed of two bones  Clavicle—collarbone  Scapula—shoulder blade  These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement

63. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Figure 5.21a

64. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Figure 5.21b

65. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Shoulder Girdle Figure 5.21c–d

66. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs  Humerus  Forms the arm  Single bone

67. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs Figure 5.22a–b

68. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs  The forearm has two bones  Ulna  Medial bone in anatomical position  Radius  Lateral bone in anatomical position

69. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs Figure 5.22c

70. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs  The hand  Carpals—wrist  Metacarpals—palm  Phalanges—fingers

71. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Upper Limbs Figure 5.23

72. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Pelvic Girdle  Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones  Composed of three pairs of fused bones  Ilium  Ischium  Pubis

73. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Pelvic Girdle  The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis  It protects several organs  Reproductive organs  Urinary bladder  Part of the large intestine

74. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Pelvis Figure 5.24a

75. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone Figure 5.24b

76. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gender Differences of the Pelvis  The female inlet is larger and more circular  The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner  The female ilia flare more laterally  The female sacrum is shorter and less curved  The female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger  The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater

77. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gender Differences of the Pelvis Figure 5.24c

78. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limbs  The thigh has one bone  Femur  The heaviest, strongest bone in the body

79. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limbs Figure 5.25a–b

80. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limbs  The lower leg has two bones  Tibia  Shinbone  Larger and medially oriented  Fibula  Thin and sticklike

81. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limbs Figure 5.25c

82. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limbs  The foot  Tarsals  Two largest tarsals  Calcaneus (heelbone)  Talus  Metatarsals—sole  Phalanges—toes

83. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bones of the Lower Limb Figure 5.26

84. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arches of the Foot  Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches  Two longitudinal  One transverse

85. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Arches of the Foot Figure 5.27

86. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Joints  Articulations of bones  Functions of joints  Hold bones together  Allow for mobility  Ways joints are classified  Functionally  Structurally

87. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Functional Classification of Joints  Synarthroses  Immovable joints  Amphiarthroses  Slightly moveable joints  Diarthroses  Freely moveable joints

88. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structural Classification of Joints  Fibrous joints  Generally immovable  Cartilaginous joints  Immovable or slightly moveable  Synovial joints  Freely moveable

89. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary of Joint Classes [Insert Table 5.3 here] Table 5.3

90. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Joints  Bones united by fibrous tissue  Example :  Sutures  Syndesmoses  Allows more movement than sutures  Example : Distal end of tibia and fibula

91. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fibrous Joints Figure 5.28a–b

92. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cartilaginous Joints  Bones connected by cartilage  Example :  Pubic symphysis  Intervertebral joints

93. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cartilaginous Joints Figure 5.28c–e

94. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints  Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity  Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

95. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Synovial Joints Figure 5.28f–h

96. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Features of Synovial Joints  Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones  A fibrous articular capsule encloses joint surfaces  A joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid  Ligaments reinforce the joint

97. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint  Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs  Lined with synovial membranes  Filled with synovial fluid  Not actually part of the joint  Tendon sheath  Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

98. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Synovial Joint Figure 5.29

99. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Synovial Joints Figure 5.30a–c

100. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of Synovial Joints Figure 5.30d–f

101. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints  Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction  Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths  Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints  Over 100 different types  The most widespread crippling disease in the United States

102. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Clinical Forms of Arthritis  Osteoarthritis  Most common chronic arthritis  Probably related to normal aging processes  Rheumatoid arthritis  An autoimmune disease—the immune system attacks the joints  Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints  Often leads to deformities

103. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Clinical Forms of Arthritis  Gouty arthritis  Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals from the blood  Can usually be controlled with diet

104. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System  At birth, the skull bones are incomplete  Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called fontanels  Fontanels are completely replaced with bone within two years after birth

105. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ossification Centers in a 12-week-old Fetus Figure 5.32

106. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life  Fetus  Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage  Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes  Flat and long bone models are converted to bone  Birth  Fontanels remain until around age 2

107. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life  Adolescence  Epiphyseal plates become ossified and long bone growth ends  Size of cranium in relationship to body  2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to the body compared to that of an adult  8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and proportion  Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull

108. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life Figure 5.33a

109. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life Figure 5.33b

110. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life  Curvatures of the spine  Primary curvatures are present at birth and are convex posteriorly  Secondary curvatures are associated with a child’s later development and are convex anteriorly  Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and lordosis) are often congenital

111. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life Figure 5.16

112. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life  Osteoporosis  Bone-thinning disease afflicting  50% of women over age 65  20% of men over age 70  Disease makes bones fragile and bones can easily fracture  Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as dowager’s hump)  Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton

113. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life Figure 5.34

114. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Skeletal Changes Throughout Life Figure 5.35