1. Systems of Stratification
Chapter 9 Section 1

2. Systems of Stratification
Almost every society in the course of human history has separated its members on the basis of certain characteristics.
Sociologists call this division of society into categories, ranks, or classes – social stratification.
Levels of stratification and their characteristics differs from society to society.
Ascribed statuses and achieved statuses can determine your social standing.
Divisions based on such individual characteristics, abilities, and behaviors lead to social inequality – the unequal sharing of scarce resources and social rewards.

3. Types of Stratification
Level of social inequality in society varies according to the degree to which that society’s stratification system is open or closed.
In a closed system, movement between the status levels is impossible.
In an open system, movement between status levels is possible.
Ease of movement depends on the degree of openness of the system
Sociologists recognize 2 basic types of stratification systems in today’s societies:
Caste systems
Class systems

4. Caste System
In a caste system, scarce resources and rewards are distributed on the basis of ascribed statuses.
A newborn child’s lifelong status – or caste – is determined by the status of his/her parents.
Effort and talent may affect someone’s position within a caste, they cannot help the person move to a higher status
Because status is inherited, a caste system has elaborate norms governing interaction among the different castes.
To avoid problems, caste systems have traditionally forbidden the practice of exogamy, marriage outside one’s own social category.
Generally practice endogamy, marriage within one’s own social category.

5. Caste Systems
Caste systems were once a very common form of social organization in South Asia.
Indian caste system: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras – Harijans (Untouchables)
Indian constitution (adopted in 1950) outlawed the discrimination against the Untouchables.
It also declared all Indians, regardless of background, were equal.
Government programs set aside places in schools and government jobs for lower caste members.
But dismantling the caste system has proved very difficult.
Some blurring of distinctions among the castes has taken place in the cities due to modern transportation systems and work arrangements forcing missing among castes.
However, in the rural areas, caste still plays a major role in organizing everyday life.

6. Class systems
In a class system the distribution of scarce resources and rewards is determined on the basis of achieved statuses.
This linking means that individuals have some control over their place in the stratification system.
Ability to move up social-class ladder as well as down
Sociologists have defined social class in a various ways:
Karl Marx theorists:
Defines social class in terms of who owns the means of production (materials and methods to produce goods and services)
Social class divided into 2 categories in this view:
Bourgeoisie: owners of the means of production in a capitalist society
Proletariat: workers who sell their labor in exchange for wages
Bourgeoisie reaps all the profits, even though the proletariat does the work

7. Dimensions of Social Stratification
Today many sociologists adopt Weber’s view of social stratification.
They define social class as a grouping of people with similar levels of wealth, power, and prestige.
Dimensions of Social Stratification

8. An individuals wealth is made up of his/her assets – the value of everything the person owns – and income – money earned through salaries, investment returns, and other capital gains.
In the USA, wealth is concentrated overwhelmingly in the hands of a small minority of the population.
Richest 1% of population controls nearly one third of the country’s wealth.
Wealth

9. People with substantial wealth also usually possess considerable power.
Power is the ability to control the behavior of others, with or without their consent.
Power can be based on force, the possession of a special skill or type of knowledge, a particular social status, personal characteristics, or custom and tradition.
Power

10. Individuals can be ranked according to prestige as well as by the wealth and power they posses.
Prestige is the respect, honor, recognition, or courtesy an individual receives from other members of society.
Prestige can be based on any characteristics a society or group considers important.
In the USA, occupation tends to be the most important determinant of prestige.
Prestige

11. To make the ranking of people according to wealth, power, and prestige possible, sociologists often calculate peoples socioeconomic status (SES).
This is a rating that combines social factors such as educational level, occupational prestige, and places of residence with the economic factor of income.
These combined factors are then used to determine an individual’s relative position in the stratification system.
Socioeconomic status

12. Explaining Stratification
Functionalist Theory – functionalists view stratification as a necessary feature of the social structure.
The functionalist explanation assumes that certain roles in society must be performed if the system is to be maintained.
Higher rewards for the performance of these roles ensure their fulfillment – the more important the role and the more skill needed to perform the role, the higher the reward.
Functionalists claim without varying rewards, may jobs would not be filled, and society could not function smoothly.
Critics of theory say:
Theory fails to consider that not everyone in society has equal access to such resources as education.
Ignores the likelihood that there may be many talented people in the lower classes
Cannot explain why rewards sometimes do not reflect the social value of the role

13. Explaining Stratification
Conflict theory:
See competition over scarce resources as the cause of social inequality.
Stratification comes from class exploitation.
Various groups within society compete with one another for scare resources
Once a group gains power, it is able to shape public policy and public opinion to its own advantage so it can maintain its position of power
Critics:
Fails to recognize that unequal rewards are based, in part, on the differences in talent, skill, and desire
Explaining Stratification

14. The American Class System
Chapter 9 Section 2

15. The American Class System
The U.S. has a fairly open class system. The law forbids discrimination based on ascribed characteristics such as race, religion, ancestry, or sex.
In theory, all Americans have equal access to the resources needed for social advancement.
However, the U.S. has a wide range of social classes, and the rate of social mobility is not equal for every segment of American society.

16. Determining Social Classes
Sociologists do not agree on the number of class divisions that exist in the U.S.
3 social classes: upper, middle, and lower
Other researches divide each of these 3 broad classes into upper and lower divisions
Others use a five-category classification system of upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class, working class, and lower class
Today most sociologists use a six-class system:
Upper class; upper middle class; lower middle class; working class; working poor; and underclass

17. Social Classes in the United States
Upper Class:
1% of Population
Controls a sizable proportion of the country’s wealth
Generally can be divided into two groups:
Old Money – refers to families that have been wealthy for generations (Rockefellers, Vanderbilt's, Kennedy’s); great bulk of their wealth comes from inheritance; yet in terms of social rank the family name and the accomplishments of previous generations are as important as the size of the fortune; members of this class born into an atmosphere of wealth and power
New Money (newly rich) – generally have acquired wealth through their own efforts; not as prestigious as old money because it is not backed by the long family heritage
Membership in upper class sometimes carries great power and influence
Many members of this class hold traditional views and are politically conservative

18. Upper Middle Class
Members are primarily high-income businesspeople and professionals
Most have a college education, and many have advanced degrees
Money buys them larges houses, expensive cars, yearly vacations, college education for kids, and many added luxuries
Class membership is generally based on income rather than on assets
Career oriented
Politically and socially active
Power and influence limited to the community level and do not extend to the national level

19. The Lower Middle Class
Most individuals in this class hold white-collar jobs – work that does not involve manual labor
Jobs require less education and provide a lower income than the jobs held by the upper middle class
Jobs include nursing, middle management, sales, owners of small businesses
Live a comfortable life but must work hard to keep what they have achieved
Hold traditional values and are politically conservative

20. The Working Class Hold jobs that require manual labor
Factory workers, tradespeople, less skilled jobs
Some jobs pay as much or more than many of the positions held by members of the lower middle class
Jobs do not carry much prestige
Other working class people hold clerical, lower-level sales, and various service jobs that do not require manual labor – types of jobs called pink collar jobs because women have traditionally held them
Few financial reserves thus unexpected crisis (such as medical emergencies or the loss of job) can push working-class individuals into lower class levels

21. The Working Poor Work lowest paying jobs
Jobs often temporary or seasonal such as housecleaning, migrant teamwork, and day laboring
Even though they work hard, they rarely make a living wage
Many depend on government support programs to make ends meet
Most are high-school dropouts and because of their lack of education and skills their future prospects are often bleak
Most not involve politically
They believe their situation will remain the same no matter the party in power

22. The Underclass
Families that have experienced unemployment and poverty over several generations are considered part of the underclass
Some members do work, but usually only at undesirable, low paying jobs
Chief source of income is often public assistance
Life for people in underclass is a day to day struggle for survival

23. Social Mobility
Social mobility – the movement between or within social classes or strata
3 Types of Social Mobility
1) Horizontal Mobility: movement within a social class or stratum. When an individual moves from one job to another of equal social ranking. An accountant moves from one firm to another
2) Vertical Mobility: movement between a social class or stratum. Movement either upward or downward, depending on whether an individual moves to a higher or lower position in the stratification system. Promotion from secretarial to management position – may even move individual from working class to lower middle class
3) Intergenerational mobility: status differences between generations in the same family – son or daughter of an automobile mechanic who becomes a doctor

24. Poverty
Chapter 9 Section 3

25. Poverty
The US is one of the richest countries in the world but not everyone shares equally in the prosperity.
More than 31 million people (11% of population) live below the poverty level. Many millions more make incomes that are too low to meet their basic needs but they make too much for public assistance
Poverty: standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by society
Poverty is a relative measure. What is considered poverty in one society might be regarded as an adequate standard of living in another

26. American Poverty
Poverty level is determined by calculating the cost of providing an adequate diet and then the figure is multiplied by 3 because research has indicated that poor people spend a third of their income on food
Characteristics that affect poverty:
Age – children have the largest percentage in poverty
Sex – 57% of the poor are women; women head about one half of all poor families
Race and Ethnicity – Regardless of age or sex, African Americans and Hispanics in the U.S. are more likely than whites to live in poverty

27. The Effects of Poverty
Life chances: likelihood that individuals have of sharing in the opportunities and benefits of society
Life chances include health, length of life, housing, and education
Life chances vary by social class – the lower the class the less opportunity individuals have to share in the benefits of society
Poor Americans are at a serious disadvantage for health and length of life
Poor people have shorter life expectancies than do other members of society
Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a person born in a particular year can expect to live

28. Poor children are more likely to be exposed to environmental hazards such as lead paint
Poor Americans educational life chances are limited
Divorce rates are high among low-income families
Poor Americans are also more likely to be arrested, convicted, and sent to prison for crimes
Poor people more likely to be victims of crimes
The Effects of Poverty

29. Government Responses to Poverty
The government attempts to reduce inequality through various social- welfare programs
Programs use one of two approaches – either transfer payments or government subsidies
Government uses transfer payments to redistribute money among various segments of society
This redistribution involves taking a percentage of the money collected through taxes and then funneling it to groups that need public assistance such as those who are poor, unemployed, elderly, or disabled
Major transform programs: Social Security Income and Temporary Assistance for Need Families
Subsidies: transfer goods and services rather than cash
Food Stamp Program – people receive coupons/cards that can be used to buy food