1. Process Theory Continued
Review
Labeling Theory
Social Support Theory

2. Review Process Theories Differential Association/Social Learning
Theories (Sutherland, Akers)
Evidence
Policy Implications
Informal Social Control Theories
Types of control
Theories (Hirschi, Gottfreodson and Hirschi, Sampson and Laub)

3. Connections/Organization

4. Gottfredson and Hirschi
Family Context
Large family size, single parents, parental deviance
Low Direct Control
Inadequate supervision, recognition, punishment
Low Self-Control
Insensitive, impulsive, risk-taking…

5. Sampson and Laub Extension of Hirschi’s social bond theory Age graded
Adult social bonds
Quality Marriage
Quality Job
Why matter!

6. Sampson and Laub Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Parenting Supervision
Discipline
Social Bonds
Family
School
Delinquent Peers
Context
Delinquency
Adult Crime
Individual
Differences
Length of
Incarceration
Social Bonds
Marriage
Good Job

7. Control vs. Learning A product of sociological criminology (Hirschi)
The distinction is based on assumptions about human nature: What is the nature of human beings in…
Social Learning Theory?
Social Control/Deterrence Theory?
Strain/Anomie Theory?
Distinctions are not really important in psychology
Operant conditioning, vicarious learning, cognitive psychology are all grounded in “principles of learning”

8. Labeling Theory
▪ Developed by Frank Tannenbaum, Edwin Lemert, and Howard Becker
▪ Key concepts
▪ Emphasis is on interactions between individuals and institutions of formal control (e.g., police, courts, prisons).
▪ Contact with police and the courts may create negative self-image.
▪ Formal interventions may increase criminal behavior.

9. Roots of the Labeling Perspective (1 of 3)
▪ View of crime and deviance as relative
▪ No act is inherently evil, bad, or criminal.
▪ Deviant categorization depends on many factors
▪ When/where the act is committed
▪ Who the offender is
▪ Who the victim is
▪ What the consequences are

10. Roots of the Labeling Perspective (2 of 3)
▪ Focus on how power and conflict shape society (social context)
▪ Moral entrepreneurs
▪ Powerful groups define and react to deviant behavior
▪ Benefits powerful, can hurt the less powerful
▪ Criminal justice system: agents enforce the law in the interest of powerful groups

11. Roots of the Labeling Perspective (3 of 3)
▪ Importance of self-concept
▪ Symbolic interactionism
▪ People communicate through symbols.
▪ People interpret symbolic gestures and incorporate them into their self-image.
▪ “Looking-glass self”
▪ Developed by Charles Horton Cooley
▪ One’s own self-concepts are the product of other people’s conceptions or symbolic labels
▪ Self-fulfilling prophesy

13. A Critique of Labeling Theory
▪ Little empirical support
▪ Inaccurate assumptions
▪ Primary deviance as relative, sporadic, and unimportant
▪ Nature of the person predicts official reaction more than the nature of the act
▪ Effect of official sanctions on future behavior
▪ Racial bias does exist…but not sole (or most important) cause of CJ response to crime
▪ Arrest sometimes decreases future crime

14. Policy Implications: Labeling Theory
▪ Schur: “Radical nonintervention”
▪ Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (1974)
▪ Diversion programs
▪ Divert offenders away from the formal juvenile justice processing to programs run by other entities (i.e., social service programs)
Deinstitutionalization (esp. status offenders)
Due Process revolution in Juvenile Court

15. Labeling Theory in Context
Labeling theory most popular in 1960s-1970s
The central ideas had been around as early as the 1930s
Good “fit” for the social context of 1960s
Ironic Twist
Government, trying to do good, actually makes people worse
Good fit with the “can’t trust the government” social movement era

16. Labeling Theory Extensions I
▪ Lawrence Sherman’s “Defiance” Theory
▪ Police sanctions can
▪ Produce defiance (escalation in offending)
▪ Produce deterrence (decrease in offending)
▪ Be irrelevant
▪ Reintegrative shaming

17. Labeling Extensions II
▪ Reintegrative Shaming
Developed by John Braithewaite
▪ Effect of formal punishment depends upon how a person is punished.
▪ Shaming and reintegrative punishment will decrease future crime.
▪ Stigmatizing punishment will increase future crime.

18. Policy Implication of ReintegrativeShaming
▪ Restorative Justice
Goal of the criminal justice system: to repair the harm created by the offense
▪ Victim central to process
▪ Community volunteers also important
Punishment of offender does little to repair harm (inflicting pain not really “accountability”).

19. Policy Implications: Reintegrated Shaming (2 of 2)
▪ Empirical research
▪ Victim-offender mediation
▪ Restitution
▪ Sentencing circles
▪ Mixed findings
▪ Criticism
▪ Limited (depends on voluntary participation)
▪ Might reduce funding to more effective rehabilitation programs

20. Social Support Theory Newcomer to the theory world (mid 1990s)
Francis Cullen
Deterrence/control view of human nature is too simplistic
Social Support as “precondition” for effective parenting (control)
Social Support independently important

21. Conclusion
▪ Deviant behavior is the result of individuals interacting with social institutions over time.
▪ Social control theory: inadequate socialization
▪ Differential association/social learning theory: improper socialization
▪ Labeling theory: socialized to accept delinquent identity (interaction with the criminal justice system)
▪ Not well supported by research
▪ Revisions (e.g., informal labeling, reintegrative shaming) more promising

22. Review of Theories to Date
Social Structure
Anomie/Strain
Social Disorganization
Social Process
Learning
Control
Labeling