1. Social Process Theories
Chapter Seven:
Social Process Theories

2. Based on the process of socialization
Social Process Theory
Based on the process of socialization
The interactions people have with various organizations, institutions, and processes of society
Criminality is a function of the above
All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals

3. Critical Elements of Socialization
Family relations
Divorce
Family Deviance
Parental efficacy
Child Abuse and Crime
Educational Experience
Peer Relations
Institutional Involvement and Belief
Religion

4. Effects of Socialization on Crime
A positive self image, learning moral values, support of parents, peers, teachers, and neighbors can help to combat inducements to crime
Living in deteriorated areas
The more social problems encountered during the socialization process, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties as they mature

5. Types of Social Process Theories
Social learning theory
Social control theory
Social reaction (labeling) theory

6. Social Learning Theories
Belief that crime is a product of learning the norms, values, and behaviors associated with criminal activity
Can involve learning the techniques of crime
Prominent social learning theories:
Differential association theory
Differential reinforcement theory
Neutralization theory

7. Differential Association Theory
Criminal behavior is learned
Learning is a by-product of interaction
Learning occurs within intimate groups
Criminal techniques are learned
Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives
Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process
Criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values but it is not excused by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is also an expression of those same needs and values

8. Criticisms of Differential Association Theory
Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions
Assumes criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic
Tautological (circular in reasoning)

9. Differential Reinforcement Theory
The same process is involved in learning both deviant and conventional behavior
A number of learning processes shape behavior
Direct conditioning (differential reinforcement)
Negative reinforcement
People begin to evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with significant others and groups in their lives
Once people are accustomed to crime, their behavior can be reinforced by being exposed to deviant behavior models

10. Neutralization Theory
The process of becoming a criminal is a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to neutralize conventional values and drift
Explains why many delinquents do not become adult criminals
Explains why youthful law violators can participate in conventional behavior

11. Basics of Neutralization Theory
Criminals sometimes voice guilt over their illegal acts
Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding people
Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they cannot
Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity

12. Techniques of Neutralization
Denial of responsibility
Denial of injury
Denial of the victim
Condemnation of the condemners
Appeal to higher loyalties

13. Are Learning Theories Valid?
They make a significant contribution to our understanding of the onset of criminal behavior
But still they are subject to criticism
Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions
Fail to explain random acts of violence
There is little evidence that exists to substantiate that people learn techniques that enable them to become criminals before the actually commit crimes

14. All people have the potential to violate the law
Social Control Theory
All people have the potential to violate the law
Society presents many opportunities for illegal activity
Truly is looking at why people obey the rules and do not commit crime
Positives
Explains the onset of crime
Can apply to both the middle and lower classes
Has been empirically tested

15. Why Do Some People Obey the Rules?
Self-control
A strong moral sense that renders someone incapable of hurting others and violating social norms
Commitment to conformity
Develops with a strong commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes

16. Self Concept and Crime
A strong self-image insulates a youth from the pressures and pulls of criminogenic influences in the environment
Maladaptive social relations produce weak self-concept and poor self-esteem
These individuals are more at risk to crime

17. Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory
Links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society
Assumes that everyone is potentially a law violator
They are kept under control because they fear illegal behavior will damage their relationships
Without social bonds people are more likely to commit crime
The social bond has four main elements:
Attachment
Commitment
Involvement
Belief

18. Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory
Explains how criminal careers form based on destructive social interactions and encounters
Interaction and interpretation are key
Behaviors that are considered criminal are highly subjective
Crime is defined by those in power
Not only are acts labeled, so too are people
Both positive and negative labels involve subjective interpretation of behavior
Explains society’s role in creating deviance
Explains why some juvenile offenders do not become adult criminals

19. The Labeling Process
Initial Criminal Act
Detection by the Criminal Justice System
Decision to Label
Creation of a New Identity
Acceptance of Labels
Deviance Amplification

20. Consequences of Labeling
Labels produce a stigma
Labeled individuals may join deviant cliques
After someone is labeled, people begin to reconstruct the culprit’s identity so the act and the label become understandable
Dramatization of evil

21. Primary vs. Secondary Deviance
Primary deviance is a norm violation or crime with little or no long-term influence on the violator
Secondary deviance is a norm violation or crime that comes to the attention of significant others or social control agents, who apply a negative label with long-term consequences for the violator’s self-identity and social interactions

22. Contributions of Social Reaction (Labeling) Theory
Identifies the role played by social control agents in crime causation
Recognizes that criminality is not a disease or pathological behavior
Distinguishes between criminal acts (primary deviance) and criminal careers (secondary deviance)
Contributes to understanding crime because of its focus on interaction as well as the situation surrounding the crime

23. Social Process Theories and Public Policy
Have had a major influence on policy-making since the 1950s
Promote conventional lines of behavior
Focus on the family and schools to strengthen bonds
Reconfigure an offender’s self-image
Diversion and restitution programs