1. 1 Improving Students’ Attitudes to Science – Mission Impossible? Dr Declan Kennedy Department of Education, UCC Third National PISA Symposium 18 April 2008

2. 2 In this talk….. 1. Give overview of scientific literacy as defined in the PISA 2006 project and describes the PISA framework for the assessment of scientific literacy. 2. Outline the methodology used in PISA 2006 to measure students’ attitudes and engagement in science - exemplar materials 3. Discuss the attitudinal data for students in Ireland in the context of the international data in PISA 2006 and also in terms of other research findings in the science education literature. 4. Consider the relatively low level of engagement in science-related activities among students in Ireland in the context of the STS component of the Junior Certificate Science curriculum 5. Make recommendations to address the problem of this low level of engagement.

3. 3 The PISA Approach to Science Unlike many traditional assessments of student performance in science, PISA is not limited to measuring students’ mastery of specific science content. PISA measures -The capacity of students to identify scientific issue. -Explain phenomena scientifically. -Use scientific evidence as they encounter, interpret, solve and make decisions in life situations involving science and technology. PISA philosophy: “In order to participate fully in today’s global economy, students need to be able to solve problems for which there are no clear rule-based solutions and also to communicate complex scientific ideas clearly and persuasively. PISA has responded to this by designing tasks go beyond the simple recall of scientific knowledge. (OECD, 2007)

4. 4 The PISA definition of scientific literacy PISA 2006 defines scientific literacy in terms of an individual’s: Scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to identify questions, to acquire new knowledge, to explain scientific phenomena, and to draw evidence-based conclusion about science-related issues. For example, when individuals read about a health-related issue, can they separate scientific from non-scientific aspects of the text, and can they apply knowledge and justify personal decisions? Understanding of the characteristics features of science as a form of human knowledge and enquiry. For example, do individuals know the difference between evidence-based explanation and personal opinions?

5. 5 Awareness of how science and technology shape our material, intellectual and cultural environments. For example, can individuals recognize and explain the role of technologies as they influence a nation’s economy, social organization, and culture? Are individuals aware of environmental changes and the effects of those changes on economic and social stability? Willingness to engage with science- related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen. This addresses the value students place on science, both in terms of topics and in terms of the scientific approach to understanding the world and solving problems.

6. 6 PISA Science Framework PISA 2006 developed its science assessment tasks and questions within a framework of four interrelated aspects: i. The context in which tasks are embedded. ii. The competencies that students need to apply. iii. The knowledge areas involved. iv. Student attitudes.

7. 7 (i) Context Questions were framed within a wide variety of life situations involving science and technology, namely: “Health”, “Natural resources”, “Environment quality”, Hazards” and “Frontiers of science and technology”. These situations were related to three major contexts: personal (the self, family and peer groups), social (community) and global (life across the world). The contexts used for questions were chosen in the light of relevance to students’ interest and lives, representing science-related situations that adults hear about and face decisions e.g. health, use of resources, environmental quality, advances in science and technology, etc.

8. 8 Personal (Self, family and peer groups Social (The community) Global (Life across the world “Health”Maintenance of health, Accidents, nutrition Control of disease, social transmission, food choices, community health Epidemics, spread of infection diseases “Natural Resources” Personal consumption of materials and energy Maintenance of human population, quality of life, security, production and distribution of food, energy supply Renewable and non- renewable, natural systems, population growth, sustainable use of species “Environment”Environmental friendly behavior, use and disposal of materials Population distribution, disposal of waste, environmental impact, local weather Biodiversity, ecological sustainability, control of pollution, reproduction and loss of soil “Hazard”Natural and human-induced, Decisions about housing Rapid changes (earthquakes, severe weather), slow and progressive changes (coastal erosion, sedimentation), risk assessment Climate change, impact of modern warfare “Frontiers of science and technology” Interest in science’s explanations of natural phenomena, science-based hobbies, sport and leisure, music and personal technology New materials, devices and processes, genetic, modification, transport Extinction of species, exploration of space, origin and structure of universe

9. 9 (ii) The Competencies The science questions required students to: (a) Identify scientific issues. (b) Explain phenomena scientifically (c) Use scientific evidence.

10. 10 (a) Identifying scientific issues  Recognizing issues that are possible to investigate scientifical  Identifying keywords to search for scientific information  Recognizing the key features of a scientific investigation (b) Explaining phenomena scientifically  Applying knowledge of science in a given situation  Describing of interpreting phenomena scientifically and predicting changes  Identifying appropriate description, explanations, and predictions (c) Using scientific evidence  Interpreting scientific evidence and making and communicating conclusions  Identifying the assumptions, evidence and reasoning behind conclusions  Reflecting on the societal implications of science and technological developments

11. 11 (iii) Knowledge (iii) Knowledge In PISA 2006, scientific literacy encompasses knowledge of science and knowledge about science. Knowledge of science (knowledge of the different scientific disciplines and the natural world), i.e. understanding fundamental scientific concepts and theories Knowledge about science as a form of human enquiry, i.e. understanding the nature of science. Questions selected from the major fields of physics, chemistry, biology, Earth and space science, and technology. The assessment material had to be: Relevant to real-life situations Representative of important scientific concepts and thus of enduring utility Appropriate to the development level of 15-year-olds

12. 12 (iv) Attitudes towards science In addition to helping students gain scientific and technical knowledge, important goals of science education are to help students develop interest in science and support for scientific enquiry. Attitudes toward science play an important role in students’ decisions to develop their science knowledge further, pursue careers in science, and use scientific concepts and method productively throughout their lives. PISA’a view of science competencies includes not just someone’s abilities in science but also their disposition towards science, i.e. attitudes, beliefs, motivational orientations, self-efficacy, and values.

13. 13 Data gathered on students’ attitudes and engagement with science in four areas: (a) Support for scientific enquiry Do students value scientific ways of gathering evidence, thinking logically and communicating conclusions? Do students value scientific ways of gathering evidence, thinking logically and communicating conclusions? Acknowledge the importance of considering different scientific perspectives and arguments Support the use of factual information and rational explanations Express the need or logical and careful processes in drawing conclusions (b) Self-belief as science learners What are students’ appraisals of their own abilities in science? What are students’ appraisals of their own abilities in science? Handle scientific tasks effectively Overcome difficulties to solve scientific problems Demonstrate strong scientific abilities

14. 14 (c) Interest in science Are students interested in science-related social issues, are they willing to acquire scientific knowledge and skills and do they consider science-related careers? Indicate curiosity in science and science-related issues and endeavors Demonstrate willingness to acquire additional scientific knowledge and skills, using a variety of resources and methods Demonstrate willingness to seek information and have an ongoing interest in science, including consideration of science-related careers (d) Responsibility towards resources and environments Are students concerned about environmental issues? Show a sense of personal responsibility for maintaining a sustainable environment Demonstrate awareness of the environment consequences of individual actions Demonstrate willingness to take the action to maintain natural resources

15. 15 2. Measuring students’ attitudes Students’ attitudes measured in two ways: Questions on Student questionnaire. Questions embedded in test booklets to explore students’ attitudes in the context of specific science tasks. [Exemplar material to discuss: See handout p. 104 – 107]

16. 16 3. Attitudinal data for students in Ireland Three of the measures of students’ attitudes lend themselves to cross country comparison. A. Awareness of environmental issues B. General value of science C. Self-efficacy in science These measures relate to science achievement in a consistent way, both within countries and between OECD countries (OECD, 2007). The remaining measures, including scales derived from attitudinal items embedded in students’ test booklets, are best interpreted within countries only, as they do not relate to achievement in a consistent manner between countries.

17. 17 (A) Awareness of environmental issues Students’ awareness of environmental issues was assessed by asking them to indicate their familiarity with five issues Students are ‘ familiar with’ or’ know something about’ … IRLOECD …the consequences of clearing forests for other land use 81.8%72.7% …acid rain82.7%59.9% …the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere 75.0%58.4% …nuclear waste63.5%52.7% …the use of genetically modified organisms 26.0%35.0%

18. 18

19. 19 (B) General Value of Science General value of science was assessed by asking students to indicate their level of agreement with five statements relating to potential benefits of science. Most students in Ireland expressed agreement with the view that science is important for understanding the natural world. Most students agreed that advances in science and technology usually improve people’s living conditions. One-quarter of students in Ireland, and one-third across OECD countries did not agree with the view that advances in science and technology usually bring social benefits.

20. 20 General Value of Science Students ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’ that…IRLOECD …science is important for helping us to understand the natural world 94.2%92.9% …advances in science and technology usually improve people’s living conditions 92.4%91.6% …science is valuable to society85.7%86.9% …advances in science and technology usually help to improve the economy 84.5%80.0% …advances in science and technology usually bring social benefits 66.6%75.0%

21. 21

22. 22 (c) Self-Efficacy in Science Students’ self-efficacy in science (confidence in their ability to perform science tasks) was measured by asking them to indicate how much effort they would expend in solving each of eight tasks. More students in Ireland (81%) than on average across OECD countries (76%) said they could explain why earthquakes occur – ability at Geography or Science? Fewer students in Ireland (41%) than across OECD countries (51%) said they could discuss how new evidence could lead to change in understanding about the possibility of life on Mars. This may reflect the fact that most of the other topics are covered (to a greater or lesser extent) in the Junior Cert syllabus whereas life on Mars is not.

23. 23 Self-Efficacy in Science Students could ‘easily’, or ‘with a bit of effort’ …IRLOECD …explain why earthquakes occur more frequently in some areas than in others 81.3%76.2% …recognise the science question that underlies a newspaper report on a health issue 68.2%73.1% …interpret the scientific information provided on the labelling of food items63.7%64.4% …predict how changes to an environment will affect the survival of a certain species 63.2%64.4% …identify the science question associated with disposal of waste68.9%61.9% …describe the role of antibiotics in the treatment of disease55.0%58.8% …identify the better of two explanations for the formation of acid rain64.5%57.8% …discuss how new evidence can lead you to change your understanding about the possibility of life on Mars 41.1%50.7%

24. 24

25. 25 Interest in Science National Attitudinal Indices Some attitude indices do not lend themselves to comparison across countries, as their relationship with achievement is inconsistent (OECD, 2007). Indices of interest in science: general interest in science, instrumental motivation to learn science, enjoyment of science and engagement in science-related activities. Items that made up the index of general interest in science asked students about their interest in specific areas of science. 77% of students in Ireland (68% across OECD countries) indicated high or medium interest in human biology Only 41% of students in Ireland (49% across OECD countries) indicated high or medium interest in topics in physics. Only 44% of students in Ireland (50% across OECD countries) expressed an interest in chemistry. [ See Table 7.8 handout page 103] [ See Table 7.8 handout page 103]

26. 26 Engagement in science-related activities In general, students in Ireland reported low levels of involvement in the activities contributing to the index of engagement in science-related activities. Only 11% of students in Ireland (compared to 20% across OECD countries) reported that they regularly or very often ‘read science magazines or science newspaper articles’. Only students in Japan and the United Kingdom (8% in both countries) reported reading science articles less frequently. Students in Ireland were less likely to report visiting websites about science topics (8%), than on average across OECD countries (13%).

27. 27 Responsibility towards Resources and Environments Students generally reported high levels of concern for environmental issues, with 89% in Ireland and 92% across OECD countries saying that air pollution represented a serious issue for themselves or for people in their country. Fewer students in Ireland (67%) than across OECD countries (76%) expressed concerns about water shortages. Optimism regarding environmental issues: asked students if problems in relation to a variety of environmental issues would improve over the next 20 years. Students were generally pessimistic - only 26% of students in Ireland and 21% across OECD countries felt that problems in relation to energy shortages would improve. Only 17% of students in Ireland (15% OECD) were optimistic that issues around disposal of nuclear waste would be resolved. 61% of students in Ireland ( 69% OECD) supported the statement, ‘I am in favour of laws that regulate factory emissions, even if this would increase the price’. Hence, students seem less supportive of initiatives that would cost them more.

28. 28 Self-Concept in Science and Personal Value of Science The index of self-concept in science asked students about their general performance in science. In Ireland 62% of students said they agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, ‘I can usually give good answers to test questions on school science topics’ (OECD 65%) “Learning advanced school science topics would be very easy for me”: Ireland = 37% (OECD 47%). The index personal value of science was based on students’ level of agreement with statements such as ‘I will use science in many ways when I am an adult.’ 61% of students in Ireland (64% OECD) agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. “I find that science helps me understand things around me” : students in Ireland = 75% (OECD 75%)

29. 29 Interest in Learning about Science Topics Students have ‘high’ or ‘medium’ interest in … IRL(%)OECD(%) AcidRain …knowing which human activities contribute most to acid rain 66.361.6 …learning more about technologies that minimise the emission of gases that cause acid rain 57.358.7 GMCrops …learning about the process by which plants are genetically modified 33.246.0 …understanding better the difference between plant cross-breeding and genetic modification 39.147.1

30. 30 4. The low level of engagement in science-related activities What do we as Science Teachers want from our students? Learn about science. Gain an appreciation of the important role of science in our everyday lives. Share in our excitement of science. Enjoy their experience of science. Hopefully their experience of science will encourage them to continue with their study of science beyond Junior Certificate.

31. 31 What is of concern about numbers of students taking science subjects? There is an international trend of students “voting with their feet” and abandoning science subjects as soon as they have a choice. Research on students’ attitudes to science show a widespread disenchantment with science as they experience it in school. A level Physics YearNumber 199241301 199336168 199436147 199534802 199633033 199733243 199833769 199933548 200031794 200130802 (Source: Inter Exam Board Statistics)

32. 32

33. 33

34. 34 Questions arising…. What is it about science that seems to make it so unappealing to so many people? What is it about science that seems to make it so unappealing to so many people? How do pupils feelings about science compare to their feelings about other school subjects, and school in general? How do pupils feelings about science compare to their feelings about other school subjects, and school in general? Is the current situation really a cause for concern and if so, why? Is the current situation really a cause for concern and if so, why? What action, if any, could or should be taken to alter the situation? What action, if any, could or should be taken to alter the situation?

35. 35 In looking for insights into the problem and possible answers to some of these questions, considerable attention has been paid to the area of pupils’ attitudes to science. Research into attitudes about science has been criticised due to meanings attached to the key terms, ‘attitude’ and ‘science’. Where the term ‘attitude’ has been employed, it is generally being used to encompass the area of pupils’ feelings about the science they encounter and possibly, how these feelings relate to their knowledge of science and how they might influence behaviour.

36. 36 “A grasp of scientific method and the appreciation and critical faculties which go with it is an essential ingredient of the educated man in the twentieth century. A man cannot understand the world as known today, without such a grasp. Nor can he, without such a grasp, and without some knowledge of the sciences and their applications, adequately fulfil his position as a citizen”. “A grasp of scientific method and the appreciation and critical faculties which go with it is an essential ingredient of the educated man in the twentieth century. A man cannot understand the world as known today, without such a grasp. Nor can he, without such a grasp, and without some knowledge of the sciences and their applications, adequately fulfil his position as a citizen”. Archer Vassall, Presidential Address, Science Masters’ Association 1921.

37. 37 Teachers becoming concerned about how their pupils felt about science. Articles in this area began to appear in the 1940s in the School Science Review. “It therefore follows, as a fundamental principle, that the teacher must start if possible from the pupils’ background of experience… he must make scientific knowledge appear immediately useful, practical and valuable and not present it as abstract academic knowledge divorced from everyday life”. (McKenzie, SSR 1941) (McKenzie, SSR 1941)

38. 38 Further publications…. N.L. Hislop and E.J. Weeks (1948) examined pupils’ interest in a range of school subjects, and established that interest in physics and chemistry declined sharply with age, whilst interest in biology increased. Dainton Report referred to the ‘swing from science’ and stated that ‘the trends are now beyond doubt. Not only has a willingness to study science and technology amongst schoolchildren decreased, but too few of our graduates in these subjects are going into productive industry or school’. (Dainton DES 1968)

39. 39 “Yet, despite these initiatives and efforts, Archer Vassall’s concerns of 80 years ago would appear to be as relevant today as they were then. Perhaps even more so now than then, science is an area of knowledge which is largely responsible for shaping the age in which we live, and yet it would seem that many of the pupils in our schools do not want to know about it” “Yet, despite these initiatives and efforts, Archer Vassall’s concerns of 80 years ago would appear to be as relevant today as they were then. Perhaps even more so now than then, science is an area of knowledge which is largely responsible for shaping the age in which we live, and yet it would seem that many of the pupils in our schools do not want to know about it” - Judith Bennett (SSR 2001) - Judith Bennett (SSR 2001)

40. 40 Other Research findings It is clear from looking at studies on attitudes to science that there are two sorts of science to which young people are responding: the first is the science they encounter in their lessons and the second is the science they encounter in the world outside school, or science in society. The evidence to attitudes to school science is fairly clear cut. The number of studies have shown that young people entering secondary school generally feel very positive about science and are looking forward to science lessons. (Brown 1976, Johnson 1987) Other studies have shown that attitudes to school science become less positive over the years of secondary schooling. (Kelly 1986, Hendley et al. 1996). By the age of 16, a significant majority of pupil’s report that the science curriculum is over-full and lacks relevance to their lives. (Ramsden 1997, Osborne and Collins 1999) The decline is most marked for physical science subjects. Physical science subjects are seen as more difficult than other subjects (Cheng et al. 1995) Boys have more positive attitudes to science than girls.

41. 41 Fitzgibbon and Vincent (1994) demonstrated that a pupil opting for A-Level physical science subjects was likely to get lower grades than if they had opted for other subjects. This finding reinforced the views of students that physical sciences were harder. The picture is less straightforward for attitudes towards science in society. On the one hand, studies have consistently demonstrated that negative attitudes are held because science is seen as responsible for environmental problems (Smail and Kelly 1984, Woolnough 1990). On the other hand there is also evidence to suggest that positive attitudes exist. For example the Institute of Electrical Engineers large scale survey of pupils in England revealed that 87% thought science and technology were important in everyday life. The available evidence would seem to indicate that attitudes to science are not particularly positive overall, but attitudes to school science are more negative than attitudes to science in society, or, more precisely, the technological products of science used by society.

42. 42 Summary of research findings about pupils’ attitudes to science Pupils see school science as a hard subject. Pupils see science as not being relevant to everyday life. Pupils see science as causing environmental problems. Boys are more positive about science than girls. Interest in science declines over the years of secondary schooling. Pupils’ have more negative attitudes about the physical sciences than the biological sciences. Pupils are more negative about school science than science in general. Pupils see science as about things rather than people.

43. 43 Pupils see scientists as rather odd people.

44. 44 5. How can the problem be addressed? Key Research Finding: Science curriculum materials which put science in context and emphasise the applications of science are successful in fostering a more positive attitude to science in pupils.

45. 45

46. 46 Some other findings… Career plans are a strong determining factor for influencing choice of subjects beyond GCSE, with many able young people citing the lack of appeal of jobs involving science as the chief reason for not choosing science subjects. (Ramsden 1997) Pupils who do go on to study science subjects are very likely to cite their teachers and the teaching they received as stimulating their interest in science. Yet comparatively little research has been done to establish teachers’ and pupils view on what does appear to make a difference. (ASE 1969, Woolnough 1994)

47. 47 Science teachers are happiest and feel that they are doing a good job when they are teaching within their main specialist area (Woolnough, 1994). Pupils following courses which place a particular emphasis on approaching science concepts through contexts and applications (STS) report higher levels of interest and enjoyment in their science lessons than pupils following more traditional science courses (Ramsden, 1997). Increased interest in STS courses is translated into increased numbers opting for science subjects (Pilling, 1999).

48. 48 Beyond 2000 report “The science curriculum from 5 to 16 should be seen primarily as a course to enhance general ‘scientific literacy’.” The challenge is to try to achieve this, whilst also catering for the needs of those who may want to go on to further study.

49. 49 What do you need to deal with this? Some understanding of major scientific ideas and explanations Some understanding of science itself: –the methods of scientific enquiry –the nature of scientific knowledge –how science and society inter-relate

50. 50 Overall, positive attitudes to science decline with age. Attitudes decline most sharply between the ages of 12 and 14. Female students’ attitudes to both school science and to science outside school are more negative than those of male students at age 12 and become increasingly so over the period of secondary age schooling. Attitudes to science outside school may be more positive than attitudes to school science, e.g. science can help solve problems (environmental and social problems), contributes to wealth of nation, nation needs well qualified scientists. Despite this, common response “It’s not for me”.

51. 51 The evidence indicates that a curriculum that places more emphasis on education about science is likely to make more pupils respond more positively to science. Given that pupils who currently go on to study science often cite the enthusiasm of their teachers as being highly influential, it is clearly very important that any changes in the curriculum – particularly moves towards a curriculum about science – are implemented with the support of teachers.

52. 52 There are pointers to a way ahead: a science curriculum which helps pupils see how science relates to their lives has a positive impact on pupils’ attitudes to science. “Enthusiasm in teaching comes from the liking of the subject and confidence in talking about it. If teachers are asked to embrace a new kind of science course, there is the risk that they may feel less confident in their teaching, and therefore convey less enthusiasm for what they are teaching. A consequence of this might be that the number of pupils going on to study science subjects decreases still further” - Bennett

53. 53 The Way Forward… The School Science Curriculum has to do two jobs: 1. Develop the Scientific Literacy of all students. 1. Develop the Scientific Literacy of all students. 2. Provide the first stages of a training in science for some students. Improving Students’ Attitude to Science is not Mission Impossible! PISA Science/STS point the way forward! Last slide!

54. 54 References Bennett, J. (2001) Science with attitude: The perennial issue of pupils’ responses to science. School Science Review. 82 (300), 59 – 67) Gardner, P. (1975) Attitudes to Science: A Review. Studies in Science Education, 2, 1-41. OECD (2007) PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow’s World. Volume 1: Analysis. Osborne, J., Driver, R. and Simon, S. (1998) Attitudes to science: issues and concerns. School Science Review, 79 (288), 27-33. Simon, S. (2000) Students’ attitudes towards science. In M. Monk and J. Osborne. Good Practice in Science Teaching: What research has to say. Buckingham: Open University Press. Bennett, J and Hogarth, S. (2005). Would you want to talk to a scientist at a party?: Students’ attitudes to school science and science. Department of Educational Studies, The University of York. York : University of York.