2. Principal elements to build a correct sentence Subject + verb + object Try to follow this order: Decide what the subject X is State what X does or define it Then state when, where, how and why X does Y Add any other qualifying comments on X Ex: Every morning John rides his bicycle in the park with his favourite shirt on, smiling because he’s happy.

3. Normally – the Subject comes before the verb Ex: In the simulation was used X - WRONG X was used in the simulation - RIGHT the Subject is not too far from the verb : use active rather than passive sentences Ex: In fig. 2 a reference underlying a problem of false positive results is shown – WRONG Fig. 2 shows a reference……. – RIGHT Ten datasets with the same X, but a different Y, along with several datasets with a different X, but a similar Y, were generated – WRONG A number of datasets were generated: those with the same X along with those with a different X…….. RIGHT

4. Avoid inserting secondary information, which does not describe the subject, between subject and verb Ex: The analytical steps, owing to the difficulties in measuring X, require some simplifications - WRONG The analytical steps require some simplifications, owing to…. - RIGHT Owing to the difficulties in measuring X, the analytical steps require some simplifications - RIGHT Verb + Subject with NEITHER / NOR and So Ex: X didn’t function and nor did Y - RIGHT = X didn’t function and y didn’t function – X was positive and so was Y – RIGHT = X was positive and Y was positive Negations – Put “not” next to the verb it refers to Ex: Experiments were performed in not very good conditions - WRONG Experiments were not performed in very good conditions - RIGHT

5. Use of PRE-MODIFIERS - nouns that can be used: Ex: A plastic container (this is a container made of plastic) A gas pipe (this is not a pipe made of gas, but one for transporting gas) Like adjectives This type of modifications can be ambiguous: Ex: Different kind of animal reproduction. = different kinds of reproduction by animals (the reproduction is different) = the reproduction of different kinds of animals (animals are different) Instead of prepositional phrases use: “of” “for” and “by” to avoid misunderstanding Ex: It ensured combustion measurement - AMBIGUOUS It ensured measurement of combustion - CLEARER

6. Use of the genitive (‘s) : Ex: Alvarez’s paper on X Billow et al’s paper on Y The Italians’ idea about pasta making Andress’ paper on sulphides Burger & Wilmar’s paper on Z The dog’s bone - The genitive is normally used with humans and animal owners - With nouns of special interest to human activity Ex: The brain’s total solid weight Science’s influence

7. Use of the genitive (‘s) : Ex: These are the results of ten years’ studying, which was divided into two five-year periods A mile’s walk - With expressions of time and distance - Avoid the genitive and pre-modifying nouns in titles Ex: The problem’s definition / the problem definition - WRONG The definition of the problem - RIGHT Defining the problem - RIGHT Ex: This is an interesting theory and is similar to the one proposed by Smith - WRONG ……and is similar to Smith’s - RIGHT - To avoid using the pronoun “the one”

8. Use of the definite article: THE General rules: use the definite article THE in front of nouns used with specific, definite reference -When plural or singular nouns are followed by a qualifying phrase Ex: The paintings we saw at the exhibition (it means those specific paintings) - To refer back to something already mentioned Ex: We saw an exhibition of paintings and photos. The paintings were more interesting than the photos

9. Use of definite article: THE - For things which are unique in their kind Ex: The environment/the atmosphere/the sun/the earth/the wind/the ground/the Atlantic/the Alps - With superlatives Ex: The best results so far The least important findings

10. The definite article: THE is not used - When talking about general concepts - Before numbers Ex: The Fig.2; the appendix 3; the paint 2; the 42% Ex: The languages are useful; the scientific papers are often written too quickly - Before names of people, countries, languages Ex: The Smithson’s article; the English is not an easy language; the Italy is a beautiful country; - With the gerund Ex: The determining of X is difficult; Ex: The paper outilines a method for doing X - WRONG This paper outlines………. RIGHT - Before “paper” in abstracts and introductions - Before abstract nouns when not followed by a qualifying phrase Ex: Men fear death….. RIGHT The death of the Prime Minister………. RIGHT

11. Numbers and sizes -After words like table, figure, appendix, etc… use figures not words Ex: See Fig. 2 Eq. 1 Schedule 3 -Numbers and quantities + verb referred to them = always singular Ex: Three hundred kms is not too far One million dollars is a lot of money We need to do another three tests Five grams of X was added… -Numbers are made plural only if they mean: centinaia, migliaia ecc. Ex: Three hundred people came to the conference Hundreds of people came to the conference -After words like table, figure, appendix, etc… use figures not words Ex: 0.4- 6.8- 9.2 0.45- 6.79- 9.21 0.448- 6.786- 9.211 - Decimal places: use always the same decimal places within the same paper

12. Numbers and sizes -Numbers are not followed by plural nouns when those nouns are used as adjectives Ex: A three years old child - WRONG A three year old child – RIGHT A 5000 Megabytes computer - WRONG A 5000 Megabyte computer - RIGHT -Some journals don’t accept a hyphen (-) in the following cases Ex: In a range 1/2000 – 1/50 - WRONG In a range from 1/2000 to 1/50 - RIGHT Figures 6-7 show that…. - WRONG Figures 6 and 7 show that…. - RIGHT -Put a space between numbers and units Ex: 75 kg Exception: 75%

13. Numbers and sizes -Writing sentences with numbers 1 to 10 use the word and not the figure Ex: We did two experiments We did 12 experiments -Numbers beginning a sentence must be spelled Ex: Twelve people came to our meeting -If a number from 1 to 10 is followed by a higher number, that number too should be written as a word Ex: We did between two and twelve tests on each sample -Fractions and ordinal numbers between other words or at the beginning of sentences should be written in words Ex: Two thirds of those interviewed said the one fifth of their income was spent on fuel The first and the second experiment proved the most successful

14. Numbers and sizes -The standard abbreviations for the standard (SI) units are not followed by full stops Ex: “mg” and not “mg.” “cm” and not “cm.” “sec” and not “sec.” -The standard abbreviations for the standard units are not followed by “s” Ex: “5 cm” and not “5 cms” -The standard prefix “kilo-” should always be abbreviated “k” never “K” According to “Systeme Internationale” (SI) the abbreviations for units of measurement are: Meter – mMilliseconds – ms Kilogram - kg Gram – gSeconds – sMinute – min Mole – molHour – hLiter – L (not l) Day – dMilliliter – mLWeek – wk Degree - °CYear - y

15. Differences in British (GB) and American (US) spelling GB USA GB Ex : US Ex: -re -er metre, centre meter, center -ce -se practice practise -our -or colour, behaviour color, behavior -ogue -ge catalogue catalog -amme -am programme program -ey -ay grey gray -l -ll marvelous marvellous -ise,-yse -ize, -yze materialise, analyse materialize, analyze -em,-en -im,-in empower, ensure impower, insure -ae-,-oe- -e- anemia, oedema anemia, edema -ll - l traveller traveler -ph- -f- sulpher sulfer

16. Latin expressions used in scientific papers e.g. = exempli gratia = example given Ex: This can only be done, e.g. when values are higher than 100 - WRONG This can only be done, for example, when values are higher than 100 There are many machines available for this purpose, e.g. X, Y, Z -“e.g.” or “for example” should only be used to simplify the structure of the sentence -e.g.: it can’t be used in the middle of the sentence but only at the end of it. Although e.g. is an abbreviation, in modern journals we usually find it written as: eg (without fullstops)

17. e.g. = i.e. (exempli gratia= ad esempio) (id est= cioè) Ex: Other quantities may thus be excluded, i.e. X - WRONG Other quantities may thus be excluded, e.g. X - RIGHT Great Britain, i.e. England, Scotland and Wales, is not the same as the U.K. - RIGHT i.e. = that is Ex: This approach is enumerative. That is, it can…

18. Avoid redundant expressions Ex: It must be emphasized/stressed/noted/remarked/underlined… It is interesting to observe that…… It is worthwhile bearing in mind/noting/mentioning that…. Note that………. Avoid unnecessary words Ex: The results obtained One suitable/appropriate/convenient/interesting method is These fundamental considerations Red in colour Large in size Round in shape Dynamism and the velocity are typical characteristics of X Avoid vague periods of time and quantities Ex: A certain/specific amount of (specify) Both generally and specifically (unnecessary) On many occasions (often) A good number of times (many times, frequently) From time to time (sometimes, occasionally)

19. Avoid impersonal expressions Ex: It is necessary/mandatory to use X - WRONG X is necessary/ mandatory - RIGHT It may happen that X does not appear - WRONG X may not appear – RIGHT It is possible that X was modelled on Y - WRONG X may have been modelled on Y – RIGHT It is possible to demonstrate [Kim, 1992] that…… - WRONG Kim [1992] demonstrated that….. It is advisable to use X - WRONG X should be used - RIGHT

20. Use verbs rather than nouns The result was a fast development of the town (noun) The result was that the town developed quickly (verb) To identify X we begin with the definition of Y (noun) To identify X we begin by defining Y (verb) Use one verb rather than a verb + noun Table one shows a comparison between X and Y (verb+ noun) Table one compares X and Y (verb) As shown in Figs. 1 and 14, the calculation makes a prediction that X will…… (verb+ noun) The calculation predicts that….(figs. 13, 14) (verb) The arrival of X occured at…….. (noun + verb) X arrived at……….. (verb)

21. Try to replace a long sentence with prepositions or adverbs Ideally, you have to check whether every word could be deleted or replaced by a better one. AIM FOR ECONOMY: Because instead of based on the fact that For or to instead of for the purpose of Satisfactorily instead of in a satisfactory way/manner Conceptually instead of from a conceptual point of view Normally instead of in the normal course of events

22. Avoid making unnecessary observations: apart from being redundant they are often annoying LIKE: As the reader will no doubt be aware….. We need hardly remind the reader that….. It is worth pointing out at this moment……. Obviously, this does not mean that………

23. FALSE FRIENDS TO ACCESS: capacità o permesso di approcciare, entrare, parlare con o usare TO ASSESS: valutare, fissare un valore, imporre una tassa The words access and assess could easily be confused in scientific writing. They sound almost the same and are spelled similarly, but they have different meanings. Access means the ability or permission to approach, enter, speak with, or use. Assess means to evaluate, to fix a value, or to impose a tax upon. Both are transitive verbs, in other words, they require an object. They can be made into adjectives--accessible and assessable. Access is also a noun, but assess is not (although assessment is). TO LAY and TO LIE are frequently confused by native and non-native speakers alike. You lie in bed. But you lay the book on the table. You can equate "lay" with "put" and "lie" with "rest". You rest in bed. You put the book on the table. Germans will find them easier to distinguish because of their concepts of the accusative and dative cases. The accusative case, which indicates motion, corresponds to "lay"; the dative, or immobile case, corresponds to "lie". Try it! 1. Lay the sample on the sample holder. Then we'll let it lie there overnight.

24. TO AFFECT: influenzare, interessare TO EFFECT: effettuare, mettere in atto, ma non è di uso comune The verbs affect and effect have a similar writing. They sound almost the same and are spelled similarly, but they have different meanings. Affect means the ability to influence. Effect means to do, though it is not commonly used. Both are transitive verbs, in other words, they require an object. They both have nouns - affect = ‘effetto’ used particularly in psychiatry and effect = ‘risultato’ ACTUAL: effettivo, vero e proprio, reale 1. existing in act or fact; real: an actual case of heroism; actual expenses. Syn.1. genuine, authentic, veritable, real. EVENTUAL: finale, ultimo, definitivo, conclusivo 1. happening at some indefinite future time or after a series of occurrences; ultimate: His mistakes led to his eventual dismissal. 2. depending upon uncertain events; contingent. Syn.1. subsequent, consequent, later, resulting.

25. BASE: base come contrario di vertice BASIS: presupposto, principio, fondamento (figurato) On the base of these results, we believe that……..WRONG On the basis of these results, we believe that……RIGHT Astrologists can make a prediction of your life starting from your natal chart……OR Astrologists can make a prediction of your life on the basis of your natal chart

26. TO UTILIZE: utilizzare TO USE: usare Utilize is not an elegant variation of the word use ; it has its own distinct meaning. When you utilize something, you do something using a “tool” not normally used for the purpose, e.g., you utilize a dime when the screwdriver is nowhere to be found. If the screwdriver were there, you'd use it, not utilize a stupid dime for the purpose. RECURRENT TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS REMEMBER means ‘ricordare’ REMIND means to make someone remember something = ‘ricordare a qualcuno di fare qualcosa’. I remember you to take your umbrella since it’s raining – WRONG I remind you to take your umbrella since it’s raining – RIGHT I remind the first time I tested this kind of sample – WRONG I remember the first time I tested this kind of sample – RIGHT

27. TO ELABORATE: elaborare, studiare, sviluppare TO FABRICATE: fabbricare PLEASE don't ever write "The sample was elaborated......" “To elaborate” in English means the following: TO ELABORATE 1. perfected, painstaking. 2. ornate. 3. refine, improve. What you typically want to express is "The sample was fabricated.....“ TO FABRICATE: 1. to make by art or skill and labor; construct: The finest craftspeople fabricated this clock. 2. to make by assembling parts or sections. 3. to devise or invent (a legend, lie, etc.) 4. to fake; forge (a document, signature, etc.) — Syn.1. See manufacture.

28. TO IMPROVE: migliorare usually implies remedying a lack or a felt need: to improve a process, oneself (as by gaining more knowledge). TO AMELIORATE: migliorare a formal word, implies improving oppressive, unjust, or difficult conditions: to ameliorate working conditions. TO BETTER: migliorare It is to improve conditions which, though not bad, are unsatisfying: to better an attempt, oneself (gain a higher salary). EXPERIMENT: esperimento An experiment is what you do to investigate something. It is the process by which you learn something. Also, please don't use the word "experiment" to refer to the instrumentation with which you do the experiment. You can say "experimental setup", but the experiment is the PROCEDURE you use to test a hypothesis. EXPERIENCE: esperienza An experience is something that happens to you that is memorable in some way. Here are some of the definitions.

29. TO LOCATE: Individuare, scoprire It means to find or to be situated. TO LOCALIZE: localizzare, circoscrivere It means to confine something to a specific area. ABOUT, AROUND, APPROXIMATELY: Please don't overuse "about" or "around" in your papers to mean "approximately". "About" and "around" have many other meanings than "approximately“. Use them as variety and as alternatives to "approximately", but remember that "approximately" is really what you usually want to express.

30. LESS is used to express a smaller quantity of something: Less wine was produced this year in Switzerland. FEWER means a smaller number of units: Fewer bottles of wine were produced this year in Switzerland. Try it! 1.This atomically-resolved image of the surface of graphite measuring 10x10 nm has fewer atoms in it than the 20x20nm image. 2. We have no fewer than 10 torsional pendulums. 3."Let's apply less voltage and see what happens.“ 4. "Downloading images from Netscape is easy today. There's less traffic, that is, fewer requests.“ 5. Who has less time, the students or the professors?

31. AS: nel ruolo di, in qualità di, conforme a. With this meaning is like a preposition and should be followed by a noun. LIKE: in modo simile (ma non uguale), nella stessa misura di, simile a (similar to). With verbs use like + gerund. Ex: Like researcher he was a success, but not like teacher - WRONG As a researcher he was a success, but not as a teacher – RIGHT This technique is as the previous one – WRONG This technique is like or similar to the previous one – RIGHT X can be used like an alternative – WRONG X can be used as an alternative – RIGHT It’s as to talk to a wall – WRONG It’s like talking to a wall - RIGHT

32. CLASSICAL makes reference to the Greek and Roman culture, or to the works of art of the classical period. In a scientific context it is better to translate “classico” with traditional, when it is compared to something new, or with typical in other situations. CLASSIC translates the word “classico” when the meaning is the supreme example of something. The classical approach is to clean the samples and then……WRONG The usual/traditional approach is to…..RIGHT This is a classic case of Pavlov conditioning….. RIGHT ECONOMICAL means that makes you spare money. ECONOMIC that concerns economy The government’s economical policy is a fiasco……WRONG The government’s economic policy is a fiasco…..RIGHT From an economical point of view……..WRONG From an economic point of view……..RIGHT

33. SENSITIVE means “sensibile”. SENSIBLE means “sensato”, “ragionevole”. If you mean “notevole” you should translate it with “appreciable/significant”. These plants are very sensible to heat……WRONG These plants are very sensitive to heat…..RIGHT There was a sensible rise in temperature…..WRONG There was a significant rise in temperature…..RIGHT

34. CONSISTENT VOCABULARY It is good to use a rich and varied vocabulary in “creative” writing BUT in scientific writing your vocabulary should be consistent: Womski & Kirk (1985) investigated relationships between family environment and juvenile delinquency in a sample of 2000 adolescent boys from Washington DC. They found that a number of familial factors (family income, parents’ marital status, parental criminality, parental drug abuse and intrafamily violence) showed a significant relationship with antisocial behavior. The risk of delinquent conduct was particularly high for young people from families in which one or both parents were heroin users, and for victims of within-family violence. The authors performed a factor analysis to identify associated groups of family variables; this analysis extracted three factors, denominated Family dimensions (Parental Competence, and Parental Delinquency) showed significant correlations with criminal behavior. The third variable (family income) showed no significant correlation. These findings thus suggested that the quality of social education provided by parents is independent of income. However, other studies have obtained results suggesting that family income has important effects. A scientific article consists of many pages of dense and complicated text: if you do not use consistent vocabulary, the reader will often find it very difficult to follow the thread. Let us read the following text and list all instances of inconsistent vocabulary use below……

35. 1)Juvenile delinguency – antisocial behavious, delinquent conduct, criminal behavior 2) Adolescent boys – young people 3) Familial factors – family variables 4) Intrafamily violence – Within-family violence 5) Factors – variables, dimensions ANSWERS

36. GUIDE WORDS Scientific texts are much easier to follow if the author includes “guide words” in order to make clear the links between sentences (“linkers”: e.g. “However,…”) or to identify particular blocks of text (“labels”: e.g. “In conclusion,…”) 1)Nevertheless…… 2)First……. 3)In contrast…….. 4)Furthermore……. 5)Taken together…….

37. Do you know that there are perceptible differences between "with" and "within", "in" and "into", "up", "up on" and "upon"? These are the most frequent examples of how the addition of a small word or a few letters can shift the meaning of a sentence. I list only the most common definitions. With accompanied by, in close proximity to Withininside, in the scope of Inindicates inclusion within a space, domain, means or time Intothe act of being included Upto, toward, or in a more elevated position Up onon top of (emphasis on the position), slang for informed Uponon top of, immediately afterwards, on the occasion of I went with my husband to the movies. Within the foyer, we bought tickets after standing in line. As we went into the theater, I noticed some friends sitting up a few rows from us. I asked them "What's this film about? I'm not up on modern culture." Upon hearing this, they laughed at me. Try them yourself. 1. John lives up the hill from Sally. 2. Scott lives higher still, up on top of the hill. 3. Upon the roof of his house, there is a television antenna. 4. He strode into the lecture hall, already in an angry mood. 5. We can work with them very easily. 6. They have good spirit within their group. Some PREPOSITIONS and their MEANING

38. Verbs in scientific expressions Simple past vs. present perfect Problem:deciding which tense to use when talking about your own results or previous studies in a scientific writing: Ex.: Einstein reported or ……..has reported? Grammar rules are complicated and difficult, but in scientific writing simple rules are sufficient in most cases Simple PastPresent Perfect When referring to results of the present study When referring to a single previous study The studies in question were completed a long time ago The study in question was reported “recently” When referring to several previous studies When in doubt use the SIMPLE PAST !!!

39. Verbs in scientific expressions Verbs describing things that researchers do Investigate Evaluate Study Identify Analyze Test Determine Estimate

40. SIMPLE PAST: to describe a completed action happened in the past. Specific detail of time is often given: Last year, last week, yesterday, two days ago, in 1982, in the USA (= when we were in the USA) Ex: He received a 3-month Lupron injection...and five days later he developed back pain. (to receive-received-received) (to develop-developed-developed) Ex: In the latest issue of the journal of the American Medical Association researchers wrote their findings on the ischemic stroke. (to write-wrote-written) PRESENT PERFECT for recent past actions: Recent past: when the time is not mentioned with Just Indefinite past: with yet, already, never, ever Unfinished past: with for and since Ex: We have experimented with various chemicals, but none seem suitable. (to experiment-experimented-experimented) Ex: This procedure has already been explained... (to explain-explained-explained) Ex: We have known of the existence of X since 1980 (Know-knew-known)

41. PARALLEL STRUCTURE Like consistent vocabulary, parallel structures are of key importance for scientific writing. Consider the following two texts: Text A: The categories of human memory include sensory memory, by which we see a cine film as a continuous scene rather than a series of still images. Secondly, we have short-term memory (as used for example when you mentally calculate 3x7x4), and conscious recollection, for example of last week’s piano class, termed declarative-learning long-term memory. Finally learning how to do something, for example play the piano, is denominated procedural-learning long-term memory. Text B: Human memory can be subdivided into sensory memory (by which we see a cine film as a continuous scene rather than a series of still images), short-term memory (as used for example when you mentally calculate 3x7x4), declarative- learning long-term memory (i.e.conscious recollection, for example of last week’s piano class), and procedural-learning long-term memory (of how to do something, for example play the piano). Consider which is the easiest text and why. Recall all the advises given in the previous slides.

42. There are no firm rules about the exact contents of a scientific publication, but the guiding principle is that you should write so as to aid the reader. Think, therefore, how YOU go about looking at a paper. You read the title, look at the figures, read the abstract and conclusions. Then and only then, if you are still interested, you plunge into the text. As a reader, you would like to see “ the story told” in the title, abstract, figures, tables and conclusions. The text acts only as a supplementary material. An ABSTRACT, along with the title, is entered into literature databases. Hence, the Abstract is a distilled version of your paper. It contains the background, rationale, conclusions and implications of your work. The INTRODUCTION places your project within the context of social needs and interests, and with respect to the work of other groups. Try to answer the question “Why is this study important? (background) and “Why did we do it the way that we did” (rationale). For a longer paper, the Introduction will explain the development of your article. The DISCUSSION compares theory and experiment, explains possible errors, revisits the work of other groups in light of your new results, and mentions possible developments for future work, in other words “What are the implications of what you have done?”. The CONCLUSIONS restate the major results. Write the Conclusions as if a reader has read your paper once, filed it away for a year, then wanted a reminder, more in details than in the abstract, of what your major results were. LAST BUT NOT LEAST

43. KEY POINTS Use articles from your field as models but try to be selective: - choose articles published in American or British journals, preferably written by authors from American or British institutions. - even if a phrase is well written, it quite possibly doesn’t say exactly what you want to say, but only something similar. It is better to use a small vocabulary well than a large vocabulary badly! Clarity of expression is very important! Good scientific writing involves transmitting information and ideas in a way that maximally facilitates comprehension by the intended readers: choose the right word and construct the sentence in such a way that it is easy to read and non-ambiguous.

44. Very important points: - the correct choice of the information to be included and the order and logic of its presentation - the use of consistent terminology throughout the article, and clear correspondences between the different sections. Don’t forget the tables and figures! The basic function of scientific writing is to express yourself clearly. Try to use simple, unpretentious phrases that avoid unnecessary jargon and that make absolutely clear what you want to say. Brevity is important, but if brevity conflicts with clarity, choose clarity. KEY POINTS

45. TEN Final Questions 1)Is the title accurate and easily understandable? 2)Is consistent vocabulary used throughout the text? 3)Have you used parallel structures? 4)Could comprehension be improved by dividing large blocks of text into subsections, or shorter paragraphs? 5) In general, are information presented in an order that facilitates understanding by the reader? 6)Are all the entities specific to your study defined with sufficient clarity? 7)Does the text (particularly the Introduction and/or the Discussion) contain only relevant references to previous studies? 8)In the discussion, are your arguments good?Are your conclusions supported by your data? 9) Does the text of results draw attention to key findings? 10) Does the abstract effectively summarize the study design, results, and conclusions?