1. C I M M Y T MR International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Tailoring Conservation Agriculture to the Needs of Smallholder Farmers in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Issues. Patrick C. Wall

2. What is Conservation Agriculture? Comprises two basic components  Surface crop residue retention  Minimal soil movement

3. What is Conservation Agriculture? Plus other components essential to overcome problems that emerge once crop residues are retained: Crop rotation (Green manure cover crops)

4. Benefits of Conservation Agriculture  Increased water infiltration  Reduced moisture evaporation  Less water run-off and soil erosion  Reduction in labor and energy use  Less turn-around time between crops  Reduction in production costs *  Increases in soil organic matter *  Increases in nutrient availability *  Greater biological pest control * * Slower, cumulative benefits

5. Problems with Conservation Agriculture  Mind-set. The paradigm of the plow!  Weeds  Nitrogen mineralization and fertilization  Not adapted to soils with poor drainage  Very dry areas?

6. Adoption of Conservation Agriculture  Worldwide – estimated 95 million hectares (Derpsch, 2005)  Mostly on large, mechanised farms  Over 90% in the Americas and Australia

7. Adoption of Conservation Agriculture on Small Farms  China?  Indo-Gangetic Plains. 2 million ha of wheat in the rice-wheat system.  Brazil – approx 100,000 ha  Ghana – 200,000 small farmers

8. Some Characteristics of Small Farmers  Little access to financial capital  Prioritize production of family food needs, with sale of produce in excess of these requirements.  Risk averse  Manage mixed crop/livestock systems  Limited land resources (although this is often not their primary limiting factor)  Rely on manual labor, animal traction and/or small tractors for draught power, although they may contract service providers (with larger equipment) for some activities

9. Some Characteristics of Small Farmers (contd.)  Rely to a large degree on family members for hand labor.  Have close community linkages with weaker links outside the community.  Have less formal education than large-scale commercial farmers  Often are situated in marginal areas with respect to rainfall and topography  Often have precarious land tenure

10. An analysis of the patterns of adoption of zero tillage in six cases: Brazil Paraguay Bolivia Mexico Indo-Gangetic plains Ghana

11. Factors that Influence the Spread of Conservation Agriculture  Mind-set  Knowledge  Research and extension systems  Access to inputs and equipment  Competition for crop residues  Labor requirements  Crop productivity  Political issues

12. Mind-set  Doing away with the culture of the plough  Peer and community pressure

13. Knowledge - Management of CA Technologies  Conservation Agriculture is more knowledge-intensive than input-intensive  Success depends more on what the farmer does than on the inputs s/he applies  Smallholder farmers have little access to knowledge systems outside the community  Often their source of new agricultural information is from sporadic contact with extension agents  Extension agents in developing countries are often poorly linked to knowledge and information systems

14. Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (1)  Research and Extension Systems in the developing countries generally follow a linear model of knowledge development and flow Researchers conducting formal research in established institutions Basic research Strategic research Applied research Researchers Extension agents Farmers Technology transfer Adoption Knowledge flow

15. Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (2)  Although the principles of CA appear to have very wide applicability, the techniques and technologies to apply the principles are very site specific  CA is a complex “technology” that involves changes in many aspects of the production system  Research and extension systems cannot develop “packages” for all conditions.

16. Knowledge - Remodeling Research and Extension Systems (3)  For Complex Technologies, Multi- Agent Innovation Systems are required.  Participation of stakeholders is essential.

17. Limited Access to Inputs  CA may require more investment in purchased inputs, especially in the first years  Smallholder farmers are willing to purchase and apply inputs if the risks are low - CA generally reduces the risk associated with crop production, especially due to drought  Due to low volumes of demand and production, coverage of input and output markets may be poor  Programs that help support and develop input and output markets are necessary

18. Access to Equipment  Adequate equipment, especially for direct seeding, is a prerequisite for successful application of CA  There is little private investment in the development of equipment for smallholder farmer

19. Access to Equipment (2)  Dissemination of available equipment  Participatory evaluation and modification  Stimulation (support) of local manufacture

20. Competition for Crop Residues  Competition is mainly for animal feed  Animals are generally very important components of the production system  Communal grazing rights often apply

21. Competition for Crop Residues (2)  But surface crop residue retention is essential for the success of CA  How much residue must be kept? 204060 80 20 40 60 80 100 2 4 6 8 Cover % Relative Erosion % Residue t/ha Erenstein, 1997. Based on data of Shaxon et al., 1989, Tripp and Barreto, 1993, and Kok and Thien, 1994.

22. Based on Sain, 1997 M C R 0 R 0 A 0 Ground Cover Forage Competition for Crop Residues (3)

23. Based on Sain, 1997 M 1 C R 0 R 0 R 1 R A 0 A 1 Ground Cover Forage Competition for Crop Residues (3)

24. Based on Sain, 1997 M 1 C R 0 R 0 R 1 R R 2 A 0 A 1 Ground Cover Forage Competition for Crop Residues (3)

25. Competition for Crop Residues (4)  Leave part or all of the low quality forage on the land  Community awareness of the problems of land degradation Possible solutions  Concentrate inputs (progressively) on part of the farm  Intensify the production system to include better quality forage

26. Competition for Crop Residues (5) Data of K. Sayre from central Mexico

27. Labor use and labor productivity  The most important factor that has driven adoption on small farms  In many cases crop productivity per unit of labor is more important than per unit of land  Especially important where family size or health is declining 100 km/ha (Ethiopia, Bolivia) 140,000 hoe strokes/ha/yr (Malawi)

28. Crop Productivity  Under equal conditions CA may not give yield benefits  CA allows more timely seeding – often a critical factor in achieving high yields  Downside risk is generally lower with CA

29. Policy Aspects  Land tenure  Subsidies  Land stewardship payments and environmental services

30. Facilitating the spread of CA in E&S Africa