1. Social Surveys n Collect large amounts of empirical data from a large cross-section of the population n Questionnaires or structured interviews n Computer analysis of results

2. Questionnaires n Questionnaires are lists of questions and are the main method used in social surveys because they can reach large numbers of people. A respondent can fill in their own (self completion) or answers can be recorded by an interviewer (structured interview) or posted

3. Comparative Data n Data can be directly compared – in theory n Everyone answers the same questions – n But not everyone interprets them the same n If it is a structured interviewer there may be interviewer bias

4. Quantitative Data n Numerical data can be subjected to stats analysis n Correlations can be discovered n e.g. a link between unemployment and crime

5. Operationalising Concept n To measure things they must be in a form which allows them to be measured n How can we measure religious beliefs? n We need to settle on a particular definition

6. Coding Answers n Answers can be classified into different categories n - like a multiple choice approach

7. Types of Questions n Closed Questions n Where the answers are set down and the respondent chooses one (or more) n Sometimes ranking is used n e.g. on a scale of 1-5 etc say how important something is n ‘Other’ is often added at the end if there aren’t enough choices n Closed questions are well suited to factual data

8. Types of Questions n Open questions n Simply where a space is left for the respondent to write their own answer n This gives more freedom but is very difficult to code answers n Open questions are seen as more suitable for attitudes and values

9. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires n Self Completion n Where the respondent answers at leisure and posts back or has it collected

10. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Advantages n Inexpensive – no interviewer to pay n Large samples can be covered n Fast and efficient analysis can be made n Answers can be quantified n Postal q’res allow a greater geographical area to be studied n No interviewer bias n Fill in at leisure

11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Disadvantages n Low response n Often well below 50% for postal q’res n Therefore not representative n Respondents might not understand the q’s and there is no one to ask n Answers may be incomplete, illegible or incomprehensible n Closed q’s can limit what respondents want to say

12. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires n Structured Interviews n Here the interviewer goes through the questions and records responses

13. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Advantages n Response rate is good n Interviewers can help to explain things n This can result in more information n Respondents who can’t read or write can be included

14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Disadvantages n More expensive – training and paying interviewers n Cost increases if the sample is spread over a large area n Interviewer bias can affect responses

15. Pilot Studies n These are a small scale study carried out before the main study to test the questions, the responses, train interviewers etc. Thus any problems can be ironed out at this stage before committing a lot of money to the project. n Pilot studies help to improve clarity by removing ambiguous questions n However, despite careful preparation problems can occur.

16. Interpreting answers n What do the answers mean? n How can you tell if they are true? n Consequently results may not be as reliable as they seem n Impression management may play a part – especially if they want to be seen in a certain light n Different meanings can be attached to the same question n Consequently researchers have to know as much about the people under study as they can

17. Interpreting answers n Theoretical issues can affect choice of methods. Positivists tend to favour quantitative data because this enables generalisations from a lot of data. This helps to make causal relationships between factors…e.g a link between unemployment and crime. n Interpretivists are more concerned with the meanings attached to situations and therefore favour more qualitative data which gives an in-depth (and they see as more valid) understanding

18. Structured interviews n Simply questionnaires read out by an interviewer n The same q’s are read to everyone in the same order

19. Semi-structured interviews n The questions are in order but the interviewer has the right to ask the respondent to elaborate on answers

20. Unstructured interviews n These are more like a conversation n Rather than set questions there are a list of topics to cover n Q’s are open and the respondent has space to answer as fully as they want

21. Group interviews n The interviewer usually meets 8-10 people at one go n Focus groups are a type of group interview where the group discusses various pre-set issues

22. Structured interviews - advantages n Many are the same as questionnaires n Good for n :facts n :Comparable data n :quantitative data n less interviewer bias than ones below

23. Structured interviews - disadvantages n Limit answers n Can’t elaborate

24. Semi-Structured interviews - advantages n Shares ads of structured interviews n Plus interviewer can probe for more info n Adds depth to interview

25. Semi-Structured interviews -disadvantages n Loss of standardisation & comparability n Probes make each interview slightly different n More chance of interviewer bias than above

26. Group interviews - advantages n Focus groups are becoming more popular n Can produce rich qualitative data

27. Group interviews - disadvantages n Individuals can be influenced by the group n Individuals may feel that they haven’t had a chance to give their own view

28. Unstructured Interviews - advantages n Sensitive issues can be researched n Interviewee is put at ease n Interviewee can open up more n Not restricted to pre set answers n Answers can be developed further n Interviewer can ask further questions

29. Unstructured Interviews - advantages n Gives rich indepth data n Seen as more valid n Good for opinions, values and attitudes n Skilled interviewers can help explain and draw out more info than other types of interview

30. Unstructured Interviews - disadvantages n Interviewer bias is more of a problem n Age, gender, ethnicity etc of interviewer may affect reponses n Social desirability – interviewees want to present themselves in a certain way n Truth – some tell lies intentionally

31. Unstructured Interviews - disadvantages n Some genuinely forget details n Validity can be questioned n Comparability is difficult with the qualitative data produced n Difficult to code and quantify data n Difficult to see correlations

32. Non-directive Interview n When Conducting interviews the standard advice is to be non-directive i.e do not lead the respondent. n However, Becker adopted a more aggressive approach when interviewing Chicago teachers and found as a result the answers given were more frank (1971 study of racism in schools)

33. Participant observation n Participant is when the researcher joins the group he/she is studying. n This can be overt (i.e. the participants know) or covert (they don’t!)

34. Participant Observation- Gaining Entry n Getting in and staying in can be difficult – particularly with covert observation n See Humphreys – Tearoom trade n Patrick – Glasgow gangs n Even overt observation can cause resentment n Observers are seen as nosey parkers n e.g Okley took a long time to be accepted by traveller-gypsies she studied in 1984

35. Participant Observation- Conducting Research n Observers need to fit in and be as inconspicuous as possible n Watching and listening are crucial but sometimes q’s must be asked – but carefully n Some observers have key informants n Whyte had Doc n Patrick had Tim

36. Participant Observation- Conducting Research This helped them to be accepted – but affected how their informants viewed the group n Recording findings can be difficult in the field n Marsh made notes on scraps of paper in toilets and shoved them down his jeans n Many researchers have to rely on memory and write up diaries at the end of the day

37. Participant Observation- Advantages n Validity – people are observed in their natural settings n With covert obs they act naturally n Insight – is given into worlds otherwise closed n Things are witnessed which could never be unearthed by interviews or questionnaires

38. Participant Observation- Advantages n Things are seen through the eyes of the participants n Sometimes it is the only practical method – particularly with crime

39. Participant Observation- Disadvantages n Time and money – these can be a lot as many researchers spend years in the field n Personal cost – stress and danger in some cases –e.g Patrick n Loss of objectivity – researcher can become too involved – ‘going native’ n Sometimes researchers see the group on a negative light

40. Non- Participant Observation- n This is where an individual observes without taking part. E.g. observing children playing in the playground from a classroom window.

41. Non- Participant Observation- Compared to PO Non PO has a number of advantages and disadvantages

42. Non-Participant Observation- Advantages n Observer less likely to influence group n Researchers can use more aids for recording info as it is open

43. Non-Participant Observation- Disadvantages n Presence of researcher can affect group n The group may not act naturally n Researcher can’t ask further q’s etc n Therefore can’t discover the meanings attached to events n Researcher’s are more likely to impose their own subjective interpretations on events they witness