1. GEOG3025 Geographical referencing and the modifiable areal unit problem

2. GEOG3025 Geographical referencing and the MAUP Lecture overview: Objectives of lecture Introductory questions Geographical referencing of social data Modifiable areal unit problem Lecture summary

3. GEOG3025 Objectives To understand that there are multiple options for the geographical referencing of social data To be familiar with the principal datasets and approaches To understand the representational difficulties associated with areal aggregation

4. GEOG3025 Introductory questions… How do I find out which census area this postcode falls into? What on earth is the modifiable areal unit problem??

5. Geographical referencing Most commonly points and areas Generally indirect –Census zones –Service delivery districts –Postal geography –Regular grid (esp. from RS modelling) Aggregation from individuals Arbitrary boundary location cf. phenomena of interest (‘imposed’ vs ‘natural’ areal units)

6. GEOG3025 Point data Precise location hard to determine Usually indirect via home address elements (night-time/day-time) Point pattern valuable, but mostly reflects population distribution Many analysis concepts require aggregation (rates, denominators etc.)

7. GEOG3025 Increasing spatial resolution Early census data – large zones Smaller zones, service delivery areas GIS manipulation of zonal data Point referencing – indirect and direct Which is the ‘correct’ spatial object for the representation of population-related phenomena?

8. GEOG3025 Representational issues Spatial representation is a process, not a single technical decision –Decisions ‘frozen’ in conventional cartography –Digital datasets make possible remodelling of the data, and linkage between datasets Possible to think of the same entities as different types of spatial object

9. As surface Disease incidence As pointsAs linesAs areas What kind of spatial object?

10. Representation as a process

11. GEOG3025 Some UK address lists... Postcode Address File (Royal Mail) Council Tax Registers (local government/Valuation Office Agency) National Land and Property Gazetteer (local government/Intelligent Addressing) ADDRESS-POINT (Ordnance Survey)

12. GEOG3025 Points: address referencing ~25m postal addresses Increasing use of address-level referencing but difficulties achieving national standards (BS7666, Acacia) 2001 census difficulties in Manchester and Westminster – 14000 ‘missed’ addresses added to Manchester 2003 mid-year estimate

13. GEOG3025 Address matching problems… St. Andrews Rd SO17 1BJ Flat 3, 9 Winn Road Caerdydd The Haven, Chalk Dr 1 Church Hill Drive Lawn Place, SE15 Saint Andrew’s Road S017IBJ 9c Winn Road Cardiff 379 Chalk Drive 1 Churchill Drive Haslam Street, SE15

14. GEOG3025 Ambiguous addresses Photo: Dave Martin

15. GEOG3025 Lookup tables Giving (population or household weighted) entity-to-entity relationships e.g. postcode to census output area Independent from direct effects of imposed areal unit boundaries May include coordinate references Tools for cross-matching geographies May be generated administratively or analytically

16. GEOG3025 UK Lookup tables tool

17. County District Ward Output Area

19. GEOG3025 Lookup tables… No sliver polygon or spatial mis- matching issues May be the only alternative for modelling change over time for detailed geographies Source of ancillary variable for areal interpolation (e.g. redistribute unemployment pro rata population counts)

20. GEOG3025 Modifiable areal unit problem Openshaw (1984) Applicable to all imposed areal units Scale and aggregation effects Always impacts on spatial analysis Effects often ignored

21. GEOG3025 Aggregation Scale MAUP illustrated

22. GEOG3025 MAUP If we change the boundaries of an areal unit, would we alter the population ‘captured’ to the extent that we would change –Its geodemographic classification –Its position in a deprivation league table

23. GEOG3025 Ecological fallacy Relationships observed in ecological data would not necessarily hold at other scales of aggregation Relationships observed in ecological data do not necessarily apply at the individual level

24. GEOG3025 Ecological data issues Are all the people living in a deprived ward ‘deprived’? Are all the people living in a ‘well-off retirees’ neighbourhood either well-off or retired? –Almost certainly not!

25. GEOG3025 Lecture summary Ambiguity of geographical referencing Different spatial data types Multiple address referencing options Lookup tables, particularly based on postcode geographies Modifiable areal unit and ecological fallacy issues