1. Processing of Powder Metals, Ceramics and Glass
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PENGETAHUAN MANUFAKTUR
Dipersiapkan oleh: MOERWISMADHI ST. MT
Retired POLITEKNIK MANUFAKTUR BANDUNG

2. Definitions
Powder Metallurgy (P/M) is a processing technology in which parts are produced by compacting and sintering metallic and/or nonmetallic powders. Therefore, P/M is a typical example of an additive manufacturing process. P/M parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape, eliminating or reducing the need for subsequent machining.
Although parts as large as 20 kg can be produced by P/M, most products are less than 2 kg. The largest tonnage of metals for P/M is steel and alloys of aluminum. Other P/M materials are copper, nickel, tungsten, ceramic materials, etc.

3. Some typical applications of P/M
production of net-shape or near-net shape parts made of expensive materials. P/M process is capable of less than 3% scrap losses.
parts with porosity such as filters can be made.
bearings especially so-called permanently lubricated bearings, in which air pores in the P/M parts are filled with oil (process of impregnation)
parts of certain metals and metal alloys that are difficult to fabricate by other methods (carbide tool inserts, tungsten, ceramics, etc.)
parts of materials

4. Limitations
There are limitations and disadvantages associated with P/M processing. These include:
high tooling costs
expensive raw materials (powders)
variation in material density and mechanical properties across the volume
relatively long parts are difficult to manufacture
difficult storing and handling of powders (degradation with time and fire hazard with particular metallic powders).

5. Typical Applications for Metal Powders

6. Powder-Metallurgy
Figure 17.1 (a) Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes. (b) Upper trip lever for a commercial irrigation sprinkler, made by P/M. This part is made of unleaded brass alloy; it replaces a die-cast part, with a 60% savings. Source: Reproduced with permission from Success Stories on P/M Parts, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, New Jersey, (c) Main-bearing powder metal caps for 3.8 and 3.1 liter General Motors automotive engines. Source: Courtesy of Zenith Sintered Products, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

7. Making Powder-Metallurgy Parts
Figure 17.2 Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.

8. Particle Shapes in Metal Powders
Figure 17.3 Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they are produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.

9. Powder Particles
Figure 17.4 (a) Scanning-electron-microscopy photograph of iron-powder particles made by atomization. (b) Nickel-based superalloy (Udimet 700) powder particles made by the rotating electrode process; see Fig. 17.5b. Source: Courtesy of P. G. Nash, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago.

10. Classification of powders
The particle size is defined by the so-called mesh count, term that refers to the number of openings per linear inch of mesh.
The engineering powders, which are the starting material in P/M consist of fine particles of uniform sizes. These engineering powders are produced from raw metallic or nonmetallic powders, which contains particles of different sizes by separation of particles according to their size. The procedure of separating the powders by size is called classification of powders. Powders are classified by passing them through a series of screens of progressively smaller mesh size.

11. Particle shapes
Several of the possible particle shapes in powder metallurgy

12. Atomization and Mechanical Comminution
Figure 17.5 Methods of metalpowder production by atomization; (a) melt atomization; (b) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode. Figure 17.6 Methods of mechanical comminution, to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling.

13. Geometries of Powders
Figure 17.7 Some common equipment geometries for mixing or blending powders: (a) cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone, and (d) twin shell. Source: Reprinted with permission from R. M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.

14. Blending and mixing
Blending: mixing powder of the same chemical composition but different sizes
Mixing: combining powders of different chemistries
Blending and mixing are accomplished by mechanical means:
Several blending and mixing devices: (a) rotating drum, (b) rotating double cone, (c) screw mixer, (d) blade mixer
Except for powders, some other ingredients are usually added:
Lubricants: to reduce the particles-die friction
Binders: to achieve enough strength before sintering
Deflocculants: to improve the flow characteristics during feeding

15. Compaction
Figure 17.8 (a) Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The pressed powder part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.

16. Density Effects
Figure 17.9 (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting pressure. Density greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of P/M parts. Source: F. V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy: Principles and Applications. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, (b) Effects of density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. IACS means International Annealed Copper Standard for electrical conductivity.

17. Density Variations in Dies
Figure Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a) and (c) single-action press; (b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density, from pressing with two punches with separate movements, compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in a single-action press. Source: P. Duwez and L. Zwell.

18. Compacting Pressures for Various Metal Powders

19. Mechanical Press
Figure A 7.3 MN (825 ton) mechanical press for compacting metal powder. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Incorporated.

20. Hot and Cold Isostatic Pressing
Figure Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing, as applied to forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the assembly inside a high-pressure chamber. Source: Reprinted with permission from R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, Figure Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and temperature variation vs. time are shown in the diagram. Source: Preprinted with permission from R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.

21. Capabilities Available from P/M Operations
Figure Capabilities, with respect to part size and shape complexity, available from various P/M operations. P/F means powder forging. Source: Metal Powder Industries Federation.

22. Powder Rolling
Figure An example of powder rolling. Source: Metals Handbook (9th ed.), Vol. 7. American Society for Metals.

23. Sintering
Compressed metal powder is heated in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to a temperature below its melting point, but high enough to allow bounding of the particles:
(a) Typical heat treatment cycle in sintering; and (b) schematic cross-section of a continuous sintering furnace

24. Sintering Temperature and Time for Various Metals

25. Sintering
Figure Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state material transport; (b) liquid-phase material transport. R = particle radius, r = neck radius, and ρ = neck profile radius.

26. Mechanical Properties of Selected P/M Materials

27. Mechanical Property Comparison for Ti-6Al-4V

28. Examples of P/M Parts
Figure Examples of P/M parts, showing poor designs and good ones. Note that sharp radii and reentry corners should be avoided and that threads and transverse holes have to be produced separately by additional machining operations.

29. Forged and P/M Titanium Parts and Potential Cost Saving

30. Characteristics of Ceramics Processing

31. Steps in Making Ceramic Parts
Figure Processing steps involved in making ceramic parts.

32. Slip-Casting
Figure Sequence of operations in slip-casting a ceramic part. After the slip has been poured, the part is dried and fired in an oven to give it strength and hardness. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc

33. Extruding and Jiggering
Figure (a) Extruding and (b) jiggering operations. Source: R. F. Stoops.

34. Shrinkage
Figure Shrinkage of wet clay caused by removal of water during drying. Shrinkage may be as much as 20% by volume. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc

35. Sheet Glass Formation
Figure (a) Continuous process for drawing sheet glass from a molten bath. Source: W. D. Kingery, Introduction to Ceramics. Wiley, (b) Rolling glass to produce flat sheet. Figure The float method of forming sheet glass. Source: Corning Glass Works.

36. Glass Tubing
Figure Manufacturing process for glass tubing. Air is blown through the mandrel to keep the tube from collapsing. Source: Corning Glass Works.

37. Steps in Manufacturing a Glass Bottle
Figure Stages in manufacturing an ordinary glass bottle. Source: F.H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc

38. Glass Molding
Figure Manufacturing a glass item by pressing glass in a mold. Source: Corning Glass Works. Figure Pressing glass in a split mold. Source: E.B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook. McGraw- Hill, 1958.

39. Centrifugal Glass Casting
Figure Centrifugal casting of glass. Television-tube funnels are made by this process. Source: Corning Glass Works.

40. Residual Stresses
Figure Residual stresses in tempered glass plate, and stages involved in inducing compressive surface residual stresses for improved strength.