1. Biochemistry
Lecture 13

2. Only a Small Amount of Energy Available in Glucose is Captured in Glycolysis2
G’° = -146 kJ/mol
GLUCOSE
Full oxidation (+ 6 O2)
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
G’° = -2,840 kJ/mol

3. Cellular Respiration: the big picture
process in which cells consume O2 and produce CO2
provides more energy (ATP) from glucose than glycolysis
also captures energy stored in lipids and amino acids
evolutionary origin: developed about 2.5 billion years ago
used by animals, plants, and many microorganisms
occurs in three major stages:
acetyl CoA production
acetyl CoA oxidation
electron transfer and oxidative phosphorylation

4. Chapter 13, Figure 13.1, Oxidative processes in the generation of metabolic energy

5. Chapter 13, Figure 13.2, The three stages of respiration

6. Stage 1. Acetyl-CoA production
FIGURE 16-1 (part 1) Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respiration. Stage 1: oxidation of fatty acids, glucose, and some amino acids yields acetyl-CoA. Stage 2: oxidation of acetyl groups in the citric acid cycle includes four steps in which electrons are abstracted. Stage 3: electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are funneled into a chain of mitochondrial (or, in bacteria, plasma membrane-bound) electron carriers—the respiratory chain—ultimately reducing O2 to H2O.This electron flow drives the production of ATP.

7. Stage 2. Acetyl-CoA Oxidation
FIGURE 16-1 (part 2) Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respiration. Stage 1: oxidation of fatty acids, glucose, and some amino acids yields acetyl-CoA. Stage 2: oxidation of acetyl groups in the citric acid cycle includes four steps in which electrons are abstracted. Stage 3: electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are funneled into a chain of mitochondrial (or, in bacteria, plasma membrane-bound) electron carriers—the respiratory chain—ultimately reducing O2 to H2O.This electron flow drives the production of ATP.

8. Stage 3. Electron Transfer and oxidative Phosphorylation
FIGURE 16-1 (part 3) Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respiration. Stage 1: oxidation of fatty acids, glucose, and some amino acids yields acetyl-CoA. Stage 2: oxidation of acetyl groups in the citric acid cycle includes four steps in which electrons are abstracted. Stage 3: electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are funneled into a chain of mitochondrial (or, in bacteria, plasma membrane-bound) electron carriers—the respiratory chain—ultimately reducing O2 to H2O.This electron flow drives the production of ATP.

9. Where does this all happen?
FIGURE 19-1 Biochemical anatomy of a mitochondrion. The convolutions (cristae) of the inner membrane provide a very large surface area. The inner membrane of a single liver mitochondrion may have more than 10,000 sets of electron-transfer systems (respiratory chains) and ATP synthase molecules, distributed over the membrane surface. The mitochondria of heart muscle, which have more profuse cristae and thus a much larger area of inner membrane, contain more than three times as many sets of electron-transfer systems as liver mitochondria. The mitochondrial pool of coenzymes and intermediates is functionally separate from the cytosolic pool. The mitochondria of invertebrates, plants, and microbial eukaryotes are similar to those shown here, but with much variation in size, shape, and degree of convolution of the inner membrane.

10. Stage 1. Acetyl-CoA production
FIGURE 16-1 (part 1) Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respiration. Stage 1: oxidation of fatty acids, glucose, and some amino acids yields acetyl-CoA. Stage 2: oxidation of acetyl groups in the citric acid cycle includes four steps in which electrons are abstracted. Stage 3: electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are funneled into a chain of mitochondrial (or, in bacteria, plasma membrane-bound) electron carriers—the respiratory chain—ultimately reducing O2 to H2O.This electron flow drives the production of ATP.

11. Pyruvate Decarboxylation
FIGURE 16-2 Overall reaction catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. The five coenzymes participating in this reaction, and the three enzymes that make up the enzyme complex, are discussed in the text.

12. PDC
Chapter 13, Figure 13.4, Structure of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

13. Sequence of Events in Pyruvate Decarboxylation
Step 1: Decarboxylation of pyruvate to an aldehyde
Step 2: Oxidation of aldehyde to a carboxylic acid
Step 3: Formation of acetyl CoA
Step 4: Reoxidation of the lipoamide cofactor
Step 5: Regeneration of the oxidized FAD cofactor

14. Chapter 13, Figure 13.9, Mechanisms of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

15. Structure of FMN
Chapter 13, Figure 13.6, Structures of riboflavin and the flavin coenzymes

16. Structure of CoA
FIGURE 16-3 Coenzyme A (CoA). A hydroxyl group of pantothenic acid is joined to a modified ADP moiety by a phosphate ester bond, and its carboxyl group is attached to β-mercaptoethylamine in amide linkage. The hydroxyl group at the 3′ position of the ADP moiety has a phosphoryl group not present in free ADP. The —SH group of the mercaptoethylamine moiety forms a thioester with acetate in acetylcoenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) (lower left).

17. FIGURE 16-4 Lipoic acid (lipoate) in amide linkage with a Lys residue
FIGURE 16-4 Lipoic acid (lipoate) in amide linkage with a Lys residue. The lipoyllysyl moiety is the prosthetic group of dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2 of the PDH complex). The lipoyl group occurs in oxidized (disulfide) and reduced (dithiol) forms and acts as a carrier of both hydrogen and an acetyl (or other acyl) group.

18. Stage 2. Acetyl-CoA Oxidation
FIGURE 16-1 (part 2) Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respiration. Stage 1: oxidation of fatty acids, glucose, and some amino acids yields acetyl-CoA. Stage 2: oxidation of acetyl groups in the citric acid cycle includes four steps in which electrons are abstracted. Stage 3: electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 are funneled into a chain of mitochondrial (or, in bacteria, plasma membrane-bound) electron carriers—the respiratory chain—ultimately reducing O2 to H2O.This electron flow drives the production of ATP.

19. FIGURE 16-7 Reactions of the citric acid cycle
FIGURE 16-7 Reactions of the citric acid cycle. The carbon atoms shaded in pink are those derived from the acetate of acetyl-CoA in the first turn of the cycle; these are not the carbons released as CO2 in the first turn. Note that in succinate and fumarate, the two-carbon group derived from acetate can no longer be specifically denoted; because succinate and fumarate are symmetric molecules, C-1 and C-2 are indistinguishable from C-4 and C-3. The number beside each reaction step corresponds to a numbered heading on pages 622–628. The red arrows show where energy is conserved by electron transfer to FAD or NAD+, forming FADH2 or NADH + H+. Steps 1, 3, and 4 are essentially irreversible in the cell; all other steps are reversible. The product of step 5 may be either ATP or GTP, depending on which succinyl-CoA synthetase isozyme is the catalyst.

20. Chapter 13, Unnumbered Figure, 427

21. MECHANISM FIGURE 16-9 (part 1) Citrate synthase
MECHANISM FIGURE 16-9 (part 1) Citrate synthase. In the mammalian citrate synthase reaction, oxaloacetate binds first, in a strictly ordered reaction sequence. This binding triggers a conformation change that opens up the binding site for acetyl-CoA. Oxaloacetetate is specifically oriented in the active site of citrate synthase by interaction of its two carboxylates with two positively charged Arg residues (not shown here).

22. Chapter 13, Unnumbered Figure, 428

23. Sterospecificity

24. Step 3
MECHANISM FIGURE Isocitrate dehydrogenase. In this reaction, the substrate, isocitrate, loses one carbon by oxidative decarboxylation. See Figure for more information on hydride transfer reactions involving NAD+ and NADP+.

25. Chapter 13, Unnumbered Figure, 429

26. Step 5.

27. Carbons are scrambled at succinate*
Succinyl-CoA Synthetase
Succinyl-CoA *
1/2 *
Succinate dehydrogenase
Succinate

28. Chapter 13, Unnumbered Figure, 430

29. Step 7.

30. Chapter 13, Unnumbered Figure, 431

31. Products from one turn of the cycle
FIGURE Products of one turn of the citric acid cycle. At each turn of the cycle, three NADH, one FADH2, one GTP (or ATP), and two CO2 are released in oxidative decarboxylation reactions. Here and in several following figures, all cycle reactions are shown as proceeding in one direction only, but keep in mind that most of the reactions are reversible (see Figure 16-7).

32. Net Effect of the Citric Acid Cycle
Acetyl-CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O
2CO2 +3NADH + FADH2 + GTP + CoA + 3H+
carbons of acetyl groups in acetyl-CoA are oxidized to CO2
electrons from this process reduce NAD+ and FAD
one GTP is formed per cycle, this can be converted to ATP
intermediates in the cycle are not depleted

33. Energy Yield
TABLE 16-1 Stoichiometry of Coenzyme Reduction and ATP Formation in the Aerobic Oxidation of Glucose via Glycolysis, the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Reaction, the Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation

35. Chapter 13, Figure 13.16, Major biosynthetic roles of some citric acid cycle intermediates

36. FIGURE 16-15 Role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism
FIGURE Role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism. Intermediates of the citric acid cycle are drawn off as precursors in many biosynthetic pathways. Shown in red are four anaplerotic reactions that replenish depleted cycle intermediates (see Table 16-2)

37. TABLE 16-2 Anaplerotic Reactions

38. Chapter 13, Figure 13.14, Major regulatory factors controlling pyruvate dehydrogenase and the citric acid cycle